Oak

"Oak tree" and "Quercus" redirect here. For other uses, see Oak (disambiguation), Oak Tree (disambiguation), and Quercus (disambiguation).

Oak
Temporal range: Paleocene - Eocene boundary – recent 56–0 Ma possible Paleocene & Late Cretaceous records
Foliage and acorns of Quercus robur
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Fagales
Family: Fagaceae
Subfamily: Quercoideae
Genus: Quercus
L.
Subgenera and sections

See also List of Quercus species.

An oak is a hardwood tree or shrub in the genus Quercus of the beech family. They have spirally arranged leaves, often with lobed edges, and a nut called an acorn, borne within a cup. The genus is widely distributed in the Northern Hemisphere; it includes some 500 species, both deciduous and evergreen. Fossil oaks date back to the Middle Eocene. Molecular phylogeny shows that the genus is divided into Old World and New World clades, but many oak species hybridise freely, making the genus's history difficult to resolve.

Ecologically, oaks are keystone species in habitats from Mediterranean semi-desert to subtropical rainforest. They live in association with many kinds of fungi including truffles. Oaks support more than 950 species of caterpillar, many kinds of gall wasp which form distinctive galls, roundish woody lumps such as the oak apple, and a large number of pests and diseases. Oak leaves and acorns contain enough tannin to be toxic to cattle, but pigs are able to digest them safely. Oak timber is strong and hard, and has found many uses in construction and furniture-making. The bark was traditionally used for tanning leather. Wine barrels are made of oak; these are used for aging alcoholic beverages such as sherry and whisky, giving them a range of flavours, colours, and aromas. The spongy bark of the cork oak is used to make traditional wine bottle corks. Almost a third of oak species are threatened with extinction due to climate change, invasive pests, and habitat loss.

In culture, the oak tree is a symbol of strength and serves as the national tree of many countries. In Indo-European and related religions, the oak is associated with thunder gods. Individual oak trees of cultural significance include the Royal Oak in Britain, the Charter Oak in the United States, and the Guernica Oak in the Basque Country.

Etymology

[edit]

The generic name Quercus is Latin for "oak", derived from Proto-Indo-European *kwerkwu-, "oak", which is also the origin of the name "fir", another important or sacred tree in Indo-European culture. The word "cork", for the bark of the cork oak, similarly derives from Quercus.[1] The common name "oak" is from Old English ac (seen in placenames such as Acton, from ac + tun, "oak village"[2]), which in turn is from Proto-Germanic *aiks, "oak".[3]

Description

[edit]

Oaks are hardwood (dicotyledonous) trees, deciduous or evergreen, with spirally arranged leaves, often with lobate margins; some have serrated leaves or entire leaves with smooth margins. Many deciduous species are marcescent, not dropping dead leaves until spring. In spring, a single oak tree produces both staminate ('male') flowers in the form of catkins, and small pistillate ('female') flowers,[4] meaning that the trees are monoecious. The fruit is a nut called an acorn, borne in a cup-like structure known as a cupule; each acorn usually contains one seed and takes 6–18 months to mature, depending on the species. The acorns and leaves contain tannic acid,[5] which helps to guard against fungi and insects.[6] There are some 500 extant species of oaks.[7]

Trees in the genus are often large and slow-growing; Q. alba can reach an age of 600 years, a diameter of 13 feet (4.0 m) and a height of 145 feet (44 m).[8] The Granit oak in Bulgaria, a Q. robur specimen, has an estimated age of 1637 years, making it the oldest oak in Europe.[9] The Wi'aaSal tree, a live oak in the reservation of the Pechanga Band of Indians, California, is at least 1000 years old, and might be as much as 2000 years old, which would make it the oldest oak in the US.[10] Among the smallest oaks is Q. acuta, the Japanese evergreen oak. It forms a bush or small tree to a height of some 30 feet (9.1 m).[11]

Distribution

[edit]
Global distribution of Quercus. The New and Old World parts are mostly separate clades.[a] Red: North American.[b] Pink: Central American.[c] Yellow: European.[d] Green: West/Central Asian.[e] Turquoise: Southeast Asian.[f] Blue: East Asian.[g][12] See Phylogeny chapter/tree for sections.

The genus Quercus is native to the Northern Hemisphere and includes deciduous and evergreen species extending from cool temperate to tropical latitudes in the Americas, Asia, Europe, and North Africa. North America has the largest number of oak species, with approximately 160 species in Mexico, of which 109 are endemic, and about 90 in the United States. The second greatest area of oak diversity is China, with approximately 100 species.[13]

In the Americas, Quercus is widespread from Vancouver and Nova Scotia in the south of Canada, south to Mexico and across the whole of the eastern United States. It is present in a small area of the west of Cuba; in Mesoamerica it occurs mainly above 1000 metres.[14] The genus crossed the isthmus of Panama when the northern and southern continents came together[15] and is present as one species, Q. humboldtii, above 1000 metres in Colombia.[14] The oaks of North America are of many sections (Protobalanus, Lobatae, Ponticae, Quercus, and Virentes) along with related genera such as Notholithocarpus.[12]

In the Old World, oaks of section Quercus extend across the whole of Europe including European Russia apart from the far north, and north Africa (north of the Sahara) from Morocco to Libya. In Mediterranean Europe, they are joined by oaks of the sections Cerris and Ilex, which extend across Turkey, the Middle East, Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan, while section Ponticae is endemic to the western Caucasus in Turkey and Georgia. Oaks of section Cyclobalanopsis extend in a narrow belt along the Himalayas to cover mainland and island Southeast Asia as far as Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and Palawan.[7][16] Finally, oaks of multiple sections (Cyclobalanopsis, Ilex, Cerris, Quercus and related genera like Lithocarpus and Castanopsis) extend across east Asia including China, Korea, and Japan.[12]

Evolution

[edit]

Fossil history

[edit]

Potential records of Quercus have been reported from Late Cretaceous deposits in North America and East Asia. These are not considered definitive, as macrofossils older than the Paleogene, and possibly from before the Eocene are mostly poorly preserved without critical features for certain identification. Amongst the oldest unequivocal records of Quercus are pollen from Austria, dating to the Paleocene-Eocene boundary, around 55 million years ago. The oldest records of Quercus in North America are from Oregon, dating to the Middle Eocene, around 44 million years ago, with the oldest records in Asia from the Middle Eocene of Japan; both forms have affinities to the Cyclobalanopsis group.[17]

External phylogeny

[edit]

Quercus forms part, or rather two parts, of the Quercoideae subfamily of the Fagaceae, the beech family. Modern molecular phylogenetics suggests the following relationships:[18][19]

Fagaceae
Fagoideae

Fagus (beeches)

Quercoideae

Trigonobalanus (3 evergreen species)

Lithocarpus (stone oaks)

Chrysolepis (chinquapins)

Quercus pro parte

Notholithocarpus (tan oak)

Quercus pro parte

Castanopsis (also called chinquapins)

Castanea (chestnuts)

Internal phylogeny

[edit]

Molecular techniques for phylogenetic analysis show that the genus Quercus consisted of Old World and New World clades.[20][21][22] The entire genome of Quercus robur (the pedunculate oak) has been sequenced,[23] revealing an array of mutations that may underlie the evolution of longevity and disease resistance in oaks.[24] In addition, hundreds of oak species have been compared (at RAD-seq loci), allowing a detailed phylogeny to be constructed. However, the high signal of introgressive hybridization (the transfer of genetic material by repeated backcrossing with hybrid offspring) in the genus has made it difficult to resolve an unambiguous, unitary history of oaks. The phylogeny from Hipp et al. 2019 is:[25]

Quercus
subgenus Cerris
section Cyclobalanopsis

CTB lineage

Cyclobalanoides

Glauca

Acuta

Semiserrata

44 mya
section Cerris

East Asian Cerris

West Eurasian Cerris

section Ilex

Early-diverging Ilex

East Asian Ilex

Himalaya-Mediterranean

Himalayan subalpine

Old World
subgenus Quercus
section Lobatae

Agrifoliae

Palustres

Coccineae (Rubrae)

Phellos (Laurifoliae)

Texas red oaks

Erythromexicana

section Protobalanus

section Ponticae

New World, C. Asia
section Virentes

section Quercus

Dumosae

Prinoids

Albae

Roburoids

Stellatae

Texas white oaks

Leucomexicana

New World, Europe
New World
56 mya

Taxonomy

[edit]
See also: List of Quercus species

Taxonomic history

[edit]

The genus Quercus was circumscribed by Carl Linnaeus in the first edition of his 1753 Species Plantarum.[26] He described 15 species within the new genus, providing type specimens for 10 of these, and giving names but no types for Q. cerris, Q. coccifera, Q. ilex, Q. smilax, and Q. suber.[27] He chose Q. robur, the pedunculate oak, as the type species for the genus.[28]

A 2017 classification of Quercus, based on multiple molecular phylogenetic studies, divided the genus into two subgenera and eight sections:[29]

  • Subgenus Quercus – the New World clade (or high-latitude clade), mostly native to North America
    • Section Lobatae Loudon – North American red oaks
    • Section Protobalanus (Trelease) O.Schwarz – North American intermediate oaks
    • Section Ponticae Stef. – with a disjunct distribution between western Eurasia and western North America
    • Section Virentes Loudon – American southern live oaks
    • Section Quercus – white oaks from North America and Eurasia
  • Subgenus Cerris Oerst. – the Old World clade (or mid-latitude clade), exclusively native to Eurasia
    • Section Cyclobalanopsis Oerst. – cycle-cup oaks of East Asia
    • Section Cerris Dumort. – cerris oaks of subtropical and temperate Eurasia and North Africa
    • Section Ilex Loudon – ilex oaks of tropical and subtropical Eurasia and North Africa

The subgenus division supports the evolutionary diversification of oaks among two distinct clades: the Old World clade (subgenus Cerris), including oaks that diversified in Eurasia; and the New World clade (subgenus Quercus), oaks that diversified mainly in the Americas.[20][30]

Subgenus Quercus

[edit]
Main article: Quercus subg. Quercus
  • Sect. Lobatae (synonym Erythrobalanus), the red oaks of North America, Central America and northern South America. Styles are long; the acorns mature in 18 months and taste very bitter. The inside of the acorn shell appears woolly. The actual nut is encased in a thin, clinging, papery skin. The leaves typically have sharp lobe tips, with spiny bristles at the lobe.[29]
  • Sect. Protobalanus, the canyon live oak and its relatives, in the southwestern United States and northwest Mexico. Styles are short; the acorns mature in 18 months and taste very bitter. The inside of the acorn shell appears woolly. The leaves typically have sharp lobe tips, with bristles at the lobe tip.[29]
  • Sect. Ponticae, a disjunct including just two species. Styles are short, and the acorns mature in 12 months. The leaves have large stipules, high secondary veins, and are highly toothed.[29]
  • Sect. Virentes, the southern live oaks of the Americas. Styles are short, and the acorns mature in 12 months. The leaves are evergreen or subevergreen.[29]
  • Sect. Quercus (synonyms Lepidobalanus and Leucobalanus), the white oaks of Europe, Asia and North America. Trees or shrubs that produce nuts, specifically acorns, as fruits. Acorns mature in one year for annual trees and two years for biannual trees. Acorn is encapsulated by a spiny cupule as characterized by the family Fagaceae. Flowers in the Quercus genera produce one flower per node, with three or six styles, as well as three or six ovaries, respectively. The leaves mostly lack a bristle on their lobe tips, which are usually rounded. The type species is Quercus robur.[29][31]

Subgenus Cerris

[edit]
Main article: Quercus subg. Cerris

The type species is Quercus cerris.

  • Sect. Cyclobalanopsis, the ring-cupped oaks of eastern and southeastern Asia. These are evergreen trees growing 10–40 metres (33–131 feet) tall. They are distinct from subgenus Quercus in that they have acorns with distinctive cups bearing concrescent rings of scales; they commonly also have densely clustered acorns, though this does not apply to all of the species. Species of Cyclobalanopsis are common in the evergreen subtropical laurel forests, which extend from southern Japan, southern Korea, and Taiwan across southern China and northern Indochina to the eastern Himalayas, in association with trees of the genus Castanopsis and the laurel family (Lauraceae).[29]
  • Sect. Cerris, the Turkey oak and its relatives of Europe and Asia. Styles are long; acorns mature in 18 months and taste very bitter. The inside of the acorn's shell is hairless. Its leaves typically have sharp lobe tips, with bristles at the lobe tip.[29]
  • Sect. Ilex, the Ilex oak and its relatives of Eurasia and northern Africa. Styles are medium-long; acorns mature in 12–24 months, appearing hairy on the inside. The leaves are evergreen, with bristle-like extensions on the teeth.[29]

Ecology

[edit]
Caterpillars of the North American oak leafroller, Archips semiferanus, can defoliate oak forests.

Oaks are keystone species in a wide range of habitats from Mediterranean semi-desert to subtropical rainforest. They are important components of hardwood forests; some species grow in associations with members of the Ericaceae in oak–heath forests.[32][33] Several kinds of truffles, including two well-known varieties – black Périgord truffle[34] and the white Piedmont truffle[35] – have symbiotic relationships with oak trees. Similarly, many other fungi, such as Ramaria flavosaponaria, associate with oaks.[36][37]

Oaks support more than 950 species of caterpillars, an important food source for many birds.[38] Mature oak trees shed widely varying numbers of acorns (known collectively as mast) annually, with large quantities in mast years. This may be a predator satiation strategy, increasing the chance that some acorns will survive to germination.[39]

Jays feed on acorns and help to disperse these seeds.

Animals including squirrels[40] and jays – Eurasian jays in the Old World, blue jays in North America – feed on acorns, and are important agents of seed dispersal as they carry the acorns away and bury many of them as food stores.[41][42][43] However, some species of squirrel selectively excise the embryos from the acorns that they store, meaning that the food store lasts longer and that the acorns will never germinate.[40]

Hybridisation

[edit]
A hybrid white oak, possibly Quercus stellata × Q. muehlenbergii

Interspecific hybridization is quite common among oaks, but usually between species within the same section only,[44] and most common in the white oak group. White oaks cannot discriminate against pollination by other species in the same section. Because they are wind pollinated and have weak internal barriers to hybridization, hybridization produces functional seeds and fertile hybrid offspring. Ecological stresses, especially near habitat margins, can also cause a breakdown of mate recognition as well as a reduction of male function (pollen quantity and quality) in one parent species.[45][46]

Frequent hybridization among oaks has consequences for oak populations around the world; most notably, hybridization has produced large populations of hybrids with much introgression and the evolution of new species.[47] Introgression has caused different species in the same populations to share up to 50% of their genetic information.[48] As a result, genetic data often does not differentiate between clearly morphologically distinct species, but instead differentiates populations.[49] The maintenance of particular loci for adaptation to ecological niches may explain the retention of species identity despite significant gene flow.[50]

The Fagaceae, or beech family, to which the oaks belong, is a slowly-evolving clade compared to other angiosperms,[51][52] and the patterns of hybridization and introgression in Quercus pose a significant challenge to the concept of a species as a group of "actually or potentially interbreeding populations which are reproductively isolated from other such groups."[53] By this definition, many species of Quercus would be lumped together according to their geographic and ecological habitat, despite clear distinctions in morphology and genetic data.[53]

Diseases and pests

[edit]
Oak powdery mildew on pedunculate oak, caused by Erysiphe alphitoides

Oaks are affected by a large number of pests and diseases. For instance, Q. robur and Q. petraea in Britain host 423 insect species.[54] This diversity includes 106 macro-moths, 83 micro-moths, 67 beetles, 53 cynipoidean wasps, 38 heteropteran bugs, 21 auchenorrhynchan bugs, 17 sawflies, and 15 aphids.[54] The insect numbers are seasonal: in spring, chewing insects such as caterpillars become numerous, followed by insects with sucking mouthparts such as aphids, then by leaf miners, and finally by gall wasps such as Neuroterus.[55] Several powdery mildews affect oak species. In Europe, the species Erysiphe alphitoides is the most common.[56] It reduces the ability of leaves to photosynthesize, and infected leaves are shed early.[57] Another significant threat, the oak processionary moth (Thaumetopoea processionea), has emerged in the UK since 2006. The caterpillars of this species defoliate the trees and are hazardous to human health; their bodies are covered with poisonous hairs which can cause rashes and respiratory problems.[58] A little-understood disease of mature oaks, acute oak decline, has affected the UK since 2009.[59] In California, goldspotted oak borer (Agrilus auroguttatus) has destroyed many oak trees,[60] while sudden oak death, caused by the oomycete pathogen Phytophthora ramorum, has devastated oaks in California and Oregon, and is present in Europe.[61] Japanese oak wilt, caused by the fungus Raffaelea quercivora, has rapidly killed trees across Japan.[62]

Gall communities

[edit]
Further information: Gall and Gall wasp

Many galls are found on oak leaves, buds, flowers, and roots. Examples are oak artichoke gall, oak marble gall, oak apple gall, knopper gall, and spangle gall. These galls are the handiwork of tiny wasps from the Cynipidae. In a complex ecological relationship, these gall wasps become hosts to parasitoid wasps—primarily from the order Chalcidoidea—which lay their larvae inside the gall wasps, ultimately leading to the hosts' demise. Additionally, inquilines live commensally within the galls without harming the gall wasps.[63]

Toxicity

[edit]

The leaves and acorns of oaks are poisonous to livestock, including cattle and horses, if eaten in large amounts, due to the toxin tannic acid, which causes kidney damage and gastroenteritis.[64][65] An exception is the domestic pig, which, under the right conditions, may be fed entirely on acorns,[66] and has traditionally been pastured in oak woodlands (such as the Spanish dehesa[67] and the English system of pannage).[68] Humans can eat acorns after leaching out the tannins in water.[69]

Uses

[edit]

Timber

[edit]
Heart of oak beams of the frame of the Église Saint-Girons in Monein, France

Oak timber is a strong and hard wood with many uses, such as for furniture, floors, building frames, and veneers.[70] The wood of a red oak Quercus cerris (the Turkey oak) has better mechanical properties than those of the white oaks Q. petraea and Q. robur; the heartwood and sapwood have similar mechanical properties.[71] Of the North American red oaks, the northern red oak, Quercus rubra, is highly prized for lumber.[72][73] The wood is resistant to insect and fungal attack.[74]

Wood from Q. robur and Q. petraea was used in Europe for shipbuilding, especially of naval men of war, until the 19th century.[75] In hill states of India such as Uttarakhand, along with being used for fuelwood and timber, oak wood is used for agricultural implements, while the leaves serve as fodder for livestock during lean periods.[76][77]

Other traditional products

[edit]

Oak bark, with its high tannin content, was traditionally used in the Old World for tanning leather.[78] Oak galls were used for centuries as a main ingredient in iron gall ink for manuscripts, harvested at a specific time of year.[79] In Korea, sawtooth oak bark is used to make shingles for traditional roof construction.[80] The dried bark of the white oak was used in traditional medical preparations; its tannic acid content made it astringent and antiseptic.[81] Acorns have been ground to make a flour,[82] and roasted for acorn coffee.[83]

Culinary

[edit]

Barrels for aging wines, sherry, and spirits such as brandy and Scotch whisky are made from oak, with single barrel malt whiskies fetching a premium.[84] The use of oak in wine adds a range of flavours. Oak barrels, which may be charred before use, contribute to their contents' colour, taste, and aroma, imparting a desirable oaky vanillin flavour. A dilemma for wine producers is to choose between French and American oakwoods. French oaks (Quercus robur, Q. petraea) give greater refinement and are chosen for the best, most expensive wines. American oak contributes greater texture and resistance to ageing, but produces a more powerful bouquet.[85][86]

Oak wood chips are used for smoking foods such as fish, meat, and cheese.[87][88] In Japan, Children's Day is celebrated with Kashiwa-mochi rice cakes, filled with a sweet red bean paste, and wrapped in a kashiwa oak leaf.[89] The bark of the cork oak is used to produce cork stoppers for wine bottles. This species grows around the Mediterranean Sea; Portugal, Spain, Algeria, and Morocco produce most of the world's supply.[90]

Acorns of various oak species have been used as food for millennia, in Asia, Europe, the Middle East, North Africa, and among the native peoples of North America. In North Africa, acorns have been pressed to make acorn oil: the oil content can be as high as 30%. Oaks have also been used as fodder, both leaves and acorns being fed to livestock such as pigs. Given their high tannin content, acorns have often been leached to remove tannins before use as fodder.[91]

Conservation

[edit]

An estimated 31% of the world's oak species are threatened with extinction, while 41% of oak species are considered to be of conservation concern. The countries with the highest numbers of threatened oak species (as of 2020) are China with 36 species, Mexico with 32 species, Vietnam with 20 species, and the US with 16 species. Leading causes are climate change and invasive pests in the US, and deforestation and urbanization in Asia.[92][93][94] In the Himalayan region of India, oak forests are being invaded by pine trees due to global warming. The associated pine forest species may cross frontiers and integrate into the oak forests.[95] Over the past 200 years, large areas of oak forest in the highlands of Mexico, Central America, and the northern Andes have been cleared for coffee plantations and cattle ranching. There is a continuing threat to these forests from exploitation for timber, fuelwood, and charcoal.[96] In the US, entire oak ecosystems have declined due to a combination of factors thought to include fire suppression, increased consumption of acorns by growing mammal populations, herbivory of seedlings, and introduced pests.[97] However, disturbance-tolerant oaks may have benefited from grazers like bison, and suffered when the bison were removed following European colonization.[98][99]

Culture

[edit]

Symbols

[edit]
The oak features in many coats of arms, such as that of Estonia.[100]

The oak is a widely used symbol of strength and endurance.[101] It is the national tree of many countries,[102] including the US,[103] Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus (golden oak), Estonia, France, Germany, Moldova, Jordan, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Serbia, and Wales.[102] Ireland's fifth-largest city, Derry, is named for the tree, from Irish: Doire, meaning 'oak'.[104] Oak branches are displayed on some German coins, both of the former Deutsche Mark and the euro.[105] Oak leaves symbolize rank in armed forces including those of the United States. Arrangements of oak leaves, acorns, and sprigs indicate different branches of the United States Navy staff corps officers.[106][107] The oak tree is used as a symbol by several political parties and organisations. It is the symbol of the Conservative Party in the United Kingdom,[108] and formerly of the Progressive Democrats in Ireland.[109]

Religion

[edit]
Grīdnieku ancient oak in Rumbas parish, Latvia, girth 8.27 metres (27.1 ft) 2015

The prehistoric Indo-European tribes worshiped the oak and connected it with a thunder god, and this tradition descended to many classical cultures. In Greek mythology, the oak is the tree sacred to Zeus, king of the gods. In Zeus's oracle in Dodona, Epirus, the sacred oak was the centerpiece of the precinct, and the priests would divine the pronouncements of the god by interpreting the rustling of the oak's leaves.[110] Mortals who destroyed such trees were said to be punished by the gods since the ancient Greeks believed beings called hamadryads inhabited them.[111] In Norse and Baltic mythology, the oak was sacred to the thunder gods Thor and Perkūnas respectively.[112][113] In Celtic polytheism, the name druid, Celtic priest, is connected to Proto-Indo-European *deru, meaning oak or tree.[114] Veneration of the oak survives in Serbian Orthodox Church tradition. Christmas celebrations include the badnjak, a branch taken from a young and straight oak ceremonially felled early on Christmas Eve morning, similar to a yule log.[115]

History

[edit]
Main article: List of individual trees
Category: Individual oak trees

Several oak trees hold cultural importance; such as the Royal Oak in Britain,[116] the Charter Oak in the United States,[117] and the Guernica oak in the Basque Country.[118] "The Proscribed Royalist, 1651", a famous painting by John Everett Millais, depicts a Royalist hiding in an oak tree while fleeing from Cromwell's forces.[119][120]

In the Roman Republic, a crown of oak leaves was given to those who had saved the life of a citizen in battle; it was called the "Civic Crown".[114] In his 17th century poem The Garden, Andrew Marvell critiqued the desire to be awarded such a leafy crown: "How vainly men themselves amaze / To win the palm, the oak, or bays; And their uncessant labors see / Crowned from some single herb or tree, ..."[121][122]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ The New World sections are Protobalanus, Lobatae, Ponticae, Quercus, and Virentes. Old World sections are Cerris, Ilex and Cyclobalanopsis.
  2. ^ The North American sections are Protobalanus, Lobatae, Ponticae, Quercus, and Virentes.
  3. ^ The Central American sections are Virentes, Quercus and Lobatae
  4. ^ The European sections are Quercus, Cerris and Ilex.
  5. ^ The West/Central Asian sections are Ponticae, Quercus, Cerris and Ilex.
  6. ^ The Southeast Asian sections are Quercus, Cyclobalanopsis, Cerris and Ilex.
  7. ^ The East Asian sections are Quercus, Cerris, Ilex and Cyclobalanopsis.

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "Quercus (n.)". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 1 October 2023.
  2. ^ Mills, A. D. (1993) [1991]. A Dictionary of English Place-Names. Oxford University Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-19-283131-6.
  3. ^ "Quercus (n.)". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 1 October 2023.
  4. ^ Conrad, Jim (12 December 2011). "Oak Flowers". Backyardnature.com. Archived from the original on 4 November 2013.
  5. ^ Tull, Delena (1999). Edible and Useful Plants of Texas and the Southwest: A Practical Guide. University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-2927-8164-1. Archived from the original on 15 February 2017.
  6. ^ Hipp, Andrew (2004). Oak Trees Inside and Out. Rosen Publishing. p. 4.
  7. ^ a b "Quercus L." Plants of the World Online. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved 30 September 2020.
  8. ^ Core, Earl L. "Silvical Characteristics of the Five Upland Oaks" (PDF). United States Department of Agriculture. pp. 19–22. Retrieved 5 October 2023.
  9. ^ Todorov, Radoslav (30 September 2018). "Знаете ли кои са най-старите живи организми?" [Do you know which are the oldest living organisms?]. Chronicle.B (in Bulgarian). Retrieved 5 October 2023.
  10. ^ "The Largest Oak Trees in the World". Hardwoods Group. 27 July 2021. Retrieved 5 October 2023.
  11. ^ Gilman, Edward F.; Watson, Dennis G. "Quercus acuta: Japanese Evergreen Oak". IFAS. Retrieved 5 October 2023.
  12. ^ a b c Liu, Shuiyin; Yang, Yingying; Tian, Qin; et al. (28 April 2023), Phylogenomic Analyses Reveal Widespread Gene Flow During the Early Radiation of Oaks and Relatives (Fagaceae: Quercoideae), Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, doi:10.1101/2023.04.25.538215, S2CID 258428911
  13. ^ Hogan, C. Michael (2012) "Oak" Archived 23 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine. ed. Arthur Dawson. Encyclopedia of Earth. National Council for Science and the Environment. Washington DC
  14. ^ a b Nixon, Kevin C. (2006). "Global and neotropical distribution and diversity of oak (genus Quercus) and oak forests". Ecology and conservation of neotropical montane oak forests. Springer. pp. 3–13.
  15. ^ Hooghiemstra, H. (2006). "Immigration of Oak into Northern South America: A Paleo-Ecological Document". Ecology and conservation of neotropical montane oak forests. Springer. pp. 17–28.
  16. ^ Jablonski, Eike (2000). "Among the Oaks of Borneo and Java". International Oaks (10, Spring 2000).
  17. ^ Barrón, Eduardo; Averyanova, Anna; Kvaček, Zlatko; et al. (2017), Gil-Pelegrín, Eustaquio; Peguero-Pina, José Javier; Sancho-Knapik, Domingo (eds.), "The Fossil History of Quercus", Oaks Physiological Ecology. Exploring the Functional Diversity of Genus Quercus L., Tree Physiology, vol. 7, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 39–105, doi:10.1007/978-3-319-69099-5_3, hdl:10261/277765, ISBN 978-3-319-69098-8
  18. ^ Manos, Paul S.; Cannon, Charles H.; Oh, Sang-Hun (2008). "Phylogenetic Relationships and Taxonomic Status Of the Paleoendemic Fagaceae Of Western North America: Recognition Of A New Genus, Notholithocarpus". Madroño. 55 (3). California Botanical Society: 181–190. doi:10.3120/0024-9637-55.3.181. ISSN 0024-9637. S2CID 85671229.
  19. ^ Xiang, Xiao-Guo; Wang, Wei; Li, Rui-Qi; et al. (2014). "Large-scale phylogenetic analyses reveal fagalean diversification promoted by the interplay of diaspores and environments in the Paleogene". Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics. 16 (3). Elsevier BV: 101–110. Bibcode:2014PPEES..16..101X. doi:10.1016/j.ppees.2014.03.001. ISSN 1433-8319.
  20. ^ a b Manos, Paul S.; Zhou, Zhe-Kun; Cannon, Charles H. (2001). "Systematics of Fagaceae: Phylogenetic Tests of Reproductive Trait Evolution". International Journal of Plant Sciences. 162 (6): 1361–1379. doi:10.1086/322949. JSTOR 10.1086/322949. S2CID 85925622.
  21. ^ Hipp, Andrew L.; Manos, Paul S.; González-Rodríguez, Antonio; et al. (January 2018). "Sympatric parallel diversification of major oak clades in the Americas and the origins of Mexican species diversity". New Phytologist. 217 (1): 439–452. doi:10.1111/nph.14773. hdl:10161/15608. PMID 28921530.
  22. ^ Hubert, François; Grimm, Guido W.; Jousselin, Emmanuelle; et al. (2 October 2014). "Multiple nuclear genes stabilize the phylogenetic backbone of the genus Quercus". Systematics and Biodiversity. 12 (4): 405–423. Bibcode:2014SyBio..12..405H. doi:10.1080/14772000.2014.941037. ISSN 1477-2000. S2CID 85604759.
  23. ^ Plomion, Christophe; Aury, Jean-Marc; Amselem, Joëlle; et al. (January 2016). "Decoding the oak genome: public release of sequence data, assembly, annotation and publication strategies". Molecular Ecology Resources. 16 (1): 254–265. doi:10.1111/1755-0998.12425. PMID 25944057. S2CID 42715997.
  24. ^ Plomion, Christophe; Aury, Jean-Marc; Amselem, Joëlle; Leroy, Thibault; Murat, Florent; Duplessis, Sébastien; Faye, Sébastien; Francillonne, Nicolas; Labadie, Karine; Le Provost, Grégoire; Lesur, Isabelle (July 2018). "Oak genome reveals facets of long lifespan". Nature Plants. 4 (7): 440–452. doi:10.1038/s41477-018-0172-3. PMC 6086335. PMID 29915331.
  25. ^ Hipp, Andrew L.; Manos, Paul S.; Hahn, Marlene; et al. (14 October 2019). "Genomic landscape of the global oak phylogeny". New Phytologist. 226 (4): 1198–1212. doi:10.1111/nph.16162. PMID 31609470.
  26. ^ Pardo, Francisco M. Vázquez; Maqueda, Soledad Ramos; Pérez, Esperanza Doncel (2002). "Quercus ilex L. and Quercus rotundifolia Lam.: Two Different Species" (PDF). International Oaks (13): 9–14.
  27. ^ Iamonico, Duilio; Peruzzi, Lorenzo (2013). "Lectotypification of Linnaean Names in the Genus Quercus (Fagaceae)". Taxon. 62 (5): 1041–1045. doi:10.12705/625.5. JSTOR taxon.62.5.1041.
  28. ^ Nixon, Kevin C.; Carpenter, James M.; Stevenson, Dennis W. (2003). "The PhyloCode is fatally flawed, and the 'Linnaean' system can easily be fixed" (PDF). The Botanical Review. 69 (1): 111–120. doi:10.1663/0006-8101(2003)069[0111:TPIFFA]2.0.CO;2 (inactive 27 August 2024). S2CID 43477057.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of August 2024 (link)
  29. ^ a b c d e f g h i Denk, Thomas; Grimm, Guido W.; Manos, Paul S.; et al. (2017). "An Updated Infrageneric Classification of the Oaks: Review of Previous Taxonomic Schemes and Synthesis of Evolutionary Patterns". In Gil-Pelegrín, Eustaquio; Peguero-Pina, José Javier; Sancho-Knapik, Domingo (eds.). Oaks Physiological Ecology. Exploring the Functional Diversity of Genus Quercus L. Tree Physiology. Vol. 7. Cham.: Springer International Publishing. pp. 13–38. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-69099-5_2. ISBN 978-3-319-69099-5.
  30. ^ Manos, Paul S.; Hipp, Andrew L. (15 June 2021). "An Updated Infrageneric Classification of the North American Oaks (Quercus Subgenus Quercus): Review of the Contribution of Phylogenomic Data to Biogeography and Species Diversity". Forests. 12 (6). MDPI AG: 786. doi:10.3390/f12060786. ISSN 1999-4907.
  31. ^ Hitchcock, C. Leo (2018). Flora of the Pacific Northwest : an illustrated manual. Arthur Cronquist, David Giblin, Ben Legler, Peter F. Zika, Richard G. Olmstead (Second ed.). Seattle: University of Washington Press. p. 221. ISBN 978-0-295-74289-2. OCLC 1027726223.
  32. ^ The Natural Communities of Virginia Classification of Ecological Community Groups (Version 2.3), Virginia Department of Conservation and Recreation, 2010 Archived 15 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine. Dcr.virginia.gov. Retrieved 2011-12-10.
  33. ^ Schafale, M. P. and A. S. Weakley. 1990. Classification of the natural communities of North Carolina: third approximation. North Carolina Natural Heritage Program, North Carolina Division of Parks and Recreation.
  34. ^ "Truffle Glossary: Black Truffles". thenibble.com. 1 July 2010. Archived from the original on 19 April 2010. Retrieved 1 July 2010.
  35. ^ "Truffle Glossary: White Truffles". thenibble.com. 1 July 2010. Archived from the original on 25 September 2010. Retrieved 1 July 2010.
  36. ^ Nirschl, Rick. "Mushrooms of the Oak Openings" (PDF). Toledo Naturalists' Association. p. 4. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 19 July 2018.
  37. ^ Petersen, Ronald H. (November 1985). "Notes on Clavarioid Fungi. XX. New Taxa and Distributional Records in Clavulina and Ramaria". Mycologia. 77 (6). Taylor & Francis: 903–919. doi:10.2307/3793302. ISSN 0027-5514. JSTOR 3793302. OCLC 7377077277.
  38. ^ Bryant, Tracey (April 2021). "Planting For the Planet". University of Delaware.
  39. ^ Bogdziewicz, Michał; Marino, Shealyn; Bonal, Raul; Zwolak, Rafał; Steele, Michael A. (28 September 2018). "Rapid aggregative and reproductive responses of weevils to masting of North American oaks counteract predator satiation". Ecology. 99 (11). Wiley: 2575–2582. Bibcode:2018Ecol...99.2575B. doi:10.1002/ecy.2510. ISSN 0012-9658. PMID 30182480. S2CID 52156639.
  40. ^ a b Steele, Michael A.; Yi, Xianfeng (4 August 2020). "Squirrel-Seed Interactions: The Evolutionary Strategies and Impact of Squirrels as Both Seed Predators and Seed Dispersers". Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution. 8. Frontiers Media SA. doi:10.3389/fevo.2020.00259. ISSN 2296-701X.
  41. ^ Mitrus, Cezary; Szabo, Josif (1 June 2020). "Foraging Eurasian Jays (Garrulus glandarius) prefer oaks and acorns in central Europe". Ornis Hungarica. 28 (1). Walter de Gruyter GmbH: 169–175. doi:10.2478/orhu-2020-0010. ISSN 2061-9588. S2CID 220634002.
  42. ^ Enroth, Christopher (4 March 2022). "Of blue jays and pin oaks: How jays have shaped our oak forests around the world". University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign. Retrieved 14 October 2023.
  43. ^ Bossema, I. (1979). "Jays and Oaks: an Eco-Ethological Study of a Symbiosis". Behaviour. 70 (1–2). Brill: 1–116. doi:10.1163/156853979x00016. ISSN 0005-7959.
  44. ^ Valen, Leigh Van (1976). "Ecological Species, Multispecies, and Oaks". Taxon. 25 (2/3): 233–239. doi:10.2307/1219444. ISSN 0040-0262. JSTOR 1219444.
  45. ^ Williams, Joseph H.; Boecklen, William J.; Howard, Daniel J. (2001). "Reproductive processes in two oak (Quercus) contact zones with different levels of hybridization". Heredity. 87 (6): 680–690. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2540.2001.00968.x. PMID 11903563.
  46. ^ Arnold, M. L. (1997). Natural Hybridization and Evolution. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509974-5.
  47. ^ Conte, L.; Cotti, C.; Cristofolini, G. (2007). "Molecular evidence for hybrid origin of Quercus crenata Lam. (Fagaceae) from Q-cerris L. and Q-suber L.". Plant Biosystems. 141 (2): 181–193. Bibcode:2007PBios.141..181C. doi:10.1080/11263500701401463. S2CID 83882998.
  48. ^ Gomory, D.; Schmidtova, J. (2007). "Extent of nuclear genome sharing among white oak species (Quercus L. subgen. Lepidobalanus (Endl.) Oerst.) in Slovakia estimated by allozymes". Plant Systematics and Evolution. 266 (3–4): 253–264. Bibcode:2007PSyEv.266..253G. doi:10.1007/s00606-007-0535-0. S2CID 23587024.
  49. ^ Kelleher, C. T.; Hodkinson, T. R.; Douglas, G. C.; Kelly, D. L. (2005). "Species distinction in Irish populations of Quercus petraea and Q. robur: Morphological versus molecular analyses". Annals of Botany. 96 (7): 1237–1246. doi:10.1093/aob/mci275. PMC 4247074. PMID 16199484.
  50. ^ Zhang, Ruhua; Hipp, Andrew L.; Gailing, Oliver (October 2015). "Sharing of chloroplast haplotypes among red oak species suggests interspecific gene flow between neighboring populations". Botany. 93 (10): 691–700. doi:10.1139/cjb-2014-0261. hdl:1807/69792. ISSN 1916-2790.
  51. ^ Frascaria, N.; Maggia, L.; Michaud, M.; Bousquet, J. (1993). "The RBCL Gene Sequence from Chestnut Indicates a Slow Rate of Evolution in the Fagaceae" (PDF). Genome. 36 (4): 668–671. doi:10.1139/g93-089. PMID 8405983.
  52. ^ Manos, P. S.; Stanford, A. M. (2001). "The historical biogeography of Fagaceae: Tracking the tertiary history of temperate and subtropical forests of the Northern Hemisphere". International Journal of Plant Sciences. 162 (Suppl. 6): S77–S93. doi:10.1086/323280. S2CID 84936653.
  53. ^ a b Raven, Peter H.; Johnson, George B.; Losos, Jonathan B.; Singer, Susan R. (2005). Biology (Seventh ed.). New York: McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-07-111182-4.
  54. ^ a b Kennedy, Catherine E.J.; Southwood, T. Richard E. (1984). "The number of species of insect associated with British trees. A reanalysis". Journal of Animal Ecology. 53 (53): 455–478. Bibcode:1984JAnEc..53..455K. doi:10.2307/4528. JSTOR 4528.
  55. ^ Southwood, T. Richard E.; Wint, G.R. William; Kennedy, Catherine E.J.; Greenwood, Kennedy (2004). "Seasonality, abundance, species richness and specificity of the phytophagous guild of insects on oak (Quercus) canopies". European Journal of Entomology. 101 (101): 43–50. doi:10.14411/eje.2004.011.
  56. ^ Mougou, A.; Dutech, C.; Desprez-Loustau, M.-L. (2008). "New insights into the identity and origin of the causal agent of oak powdery mildew in Europe". Forest Pathology. 38 (4): 275. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0329.2008.00544.x.
  57. ^ Hajji, M.; Dreyer, E.; Marçais, B. (2009). "Impact of Erysiphe alphitoides on transpiration and photosynthesis in Quercus robur leaves" (PDF). European Journal of Plant Pathology. 125 (1): 63–72. Bibcode:2009EJPP..125...63H. doi:10.1007/s10658-009-9458-7. S2CID 21267431.
  58. ^ unspecified (11 September 2018). "Oak Processionary Moth - Tree pests and diseases". Forestry Commission (UK). Archived from the original on 20 November 2018. Retrieved 31 January 2019.
  59. ^ Kinver, Mark (28 April 2010). "Oak disease 'threatens landscape'". BBC News. Archived from the original on 29 April 2010. Retrieved 29 April 2010.
  60. ^ Coleman, T. W. (4 August 2008). "New insect evidence in continuing oak mortality" (PDF). US Forest Service.
  61. ^ Parke, J.L.; Peterson, Ebba K. (2008). "Sudden oak death, ramorum leaf blight, ramorum shoot blight". The Plant Health Instructor. Scientific Societies. doi:10.1094/phi-i-2008-0227-01. ISSN 1935-9411.
  62. ^ Kuroda, K.; Yamada, T. (1996). "Discoloration of sapwood and blockage of xylem sap ascent in the trunks of wilting Quercus spp. following attack by Platypus quercivorus". Journal of the Japanese Forestry Society. 78 (1): 84–88.
  63. ^ Askew, Richard R.; Melika, George; Pujade-Villar, Juli; Schönrogge, Karsten; Stone, Graham N.; Nieves-Aldrey, Jose Luis (30 April 2013). "Catalogue of parasitoids and inquilines in cynipid oak galls in the West Palaearctic". Zootaxa. 3643 (3643): 1–133. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.3643.1.1. ISBN 978-1-77557-147-6. PMID 25340198.
  64. ^ Dun, Kath (2006). "Oak poisoning in cattle". UK Vet Livestock. 11 (5): 47–50. doi:10.1111/j.2044-3870.2006.tb00047.x.
  65. ^ Smith, S.; Naylor, R. J.; Knowles, E. J.; Mair, T. S.; Cahalan, S. D.; Fews, D.; Dunkel, B. (7 October 2014). "Suspected acorn toxicity in nine horses". Equine Veterinary Journal. 47 (5). Wiley: 568–572. doi:10.1111/evj.12306. PMID 24917312.
  66. ^ Cappai, Maria Grazia, et al. "Pigs use endogenous proline to cope with acorn (Quercus pubescens Willd.) combined diets high in hydrolysable tannins." Livestock Science 155.2-3 (2013): 316-322.
  67. ^ Joffre, R; Rambal, S.; Ratte, J.P. (1999). "The dehesa system of southern Spain and Portugal as a natural ecosystem mimic," Journal of Agroforestry 45(1-3): 57-79.
  68. ^ Kreiner, Jamie (2020). Legions of Pigs in the Early Medieval West. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 108–119. doi:10.2307/j.ctv177tk45. ISBN 978-0-3002-4629-2. JSTOR j.ctv177tk45.
  69. ^ Bainbridge, D. A. (12–14 November 1986), Use of acorns for food in California: past, present and future, San Luis Obispo, CA.: Symposium on Multiple-use Management of California's Hardwoods, archived from the original on 27 October 2010, retrieved 11 July 2015
  70. ^ Dotson, J. Dianne (22 November 2019). "What Are Oak Trees Used for?". Sciencing. Retrieved 9 October 2023.
  71. ^ Merela, Maks, and Katarina Čufar. "Density and mechanical properties of oak sapwood versus heartwood in three different oak species". Drvna industrija 64.4 (2013): 323–334.
  72. ^ Aldrich, Preston R., et al. "Whole-tree silvic identifications and the microsatellite genetic structure of a red oak species complex in an Indiana old-growth forest." Canadian Journal of Forest Research 33.11 (2003): 2228–2237.
  73. ^ Nixon, Kevin C. (1997). "Quercus shumardii". In Flora of North America Editorial Committee (ed.). Flora of North America North of Mexico (FNA). Vol. 3. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press – via eFloras.org, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO & Harvard University Herbaria, Cambridge, MA.
  74. ^ Thaler, Nejc; Humar, Miha. "Performance of oak, beech and spruce beams after more than 100 years in service". International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation 85 (2013): 305–310.
  75. ^ Baugh, Daniel A. (1965). British Naval Administration in the Age of Walpole. Princeton University Press. p. 242. OCLC 610026758.
  76. ^ Kala, C.P. (2004). Studies on the indigenous knowledge, practices, and traditional uses of forest products by human societies in Uttarakhand state of India. GBPIHED, Almora, India
  77. ^ Kala, C.P. (2010). Medicinal Plants of Uttarakhand: Diversity Livelihood and Conservation. BioTech Books, Delhi, ISBN 8176222097.
  78. ^ Clarkson, L. A. "The English bark trade, 1660–1830" The Agricultural History Review 22.2 (1974): 136–152. JSTOR 40273608
  79. ^ "A History of Ink in Six Objects". History Today.
  80. ^ Jeon, BongHee (2016). "3: Hanok: The Formation of the Traditional Korean House". A Cultural History of the Korean House (PDF). Seoul: Seoul Selection. p. 49. ISBN 978-89-97639-63-2. The gulpijip (oak-bark-roofed house) and neowajip (shingled house) are found in the northeastern part of the Korean peninsula, as well as in Korea's more mountainous areas. ... Gulpijip uses roofing made with the bark of trees such as cone-fruit platycarya, sawtooth oak, and cedar, which all have relatively thick bark.
  81. ^ Henkel, Alice. American medicinal barks. No. 139. US Government Printing Office, 1909.
  82. ^ Szabłowska, Emilia; Tańska, Małgorzata. "Acorn flour properties depending on the production method and laboratory baking test results: A review." Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 20.1 (2021): 980-1008.
  83. ^ Samsonowicz, Mariola; et al. (2019). "Antioxidant properties of coffee substitutes rich in polyphenols and minerals". Food Chemistry. 278 (278): 101–109. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.11.057. PMID 30583350. S2CID 58542098.
  84. ^ Piggott, John R.; Conner, John M. "Whiskies." Fermented beverage production. Boston, Massachusetts: Springer, 2003. 239–262.
  85. ^ Pérez-Prieto, Luis J., et al. "Extraction and formation dynamic of oak-related volatile compounds from different volume barrels to wine and their behavior during bottle storage." Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 51.18 (2003): 5444–5449.
  86. ^ Perez‐Prieto, Luis Javier, et al. "Oak‐matured wines: influence of the characteristics of the barrel on wine colour and sensory characteristics." Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 83.14 (2003): 1445–1450.
  87. ^ Varlet, Vincent; Prost, Carole; Serot, Thierry (2007). "Volatile aldehydes in smoked fish: Analysis methods, occurrence [sic] and mechanisms of formation". Food Chemistry. 105 (4). Elsevier BV: 1536–1556. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2007.03.041. ISSN 0308-8146.
  88. ^ Guillén, Marı́a D.; Marı́a J., Manzanos (2002). "Study of the volatile composition of an aqueous oak smoke preparation". Food Chemistry. 79 (3): 283–292. doi:10.1016/S0308-8146(02)00141-3.
  89. ^ "Japanese confectionery". Travel Around Japan. Retrieved 27 September 2024.
  90. ^ "Mitos e curiosidades". Amorim. Retrieved 13 February 2021.
  91. ^ Bainbridge, David A. (1986). "1 Use of Acorns for Food in California: Past, Present, Future". 1 Use of Acorns for Food in California: Past, Present, Future David A. Bainbridge, Dry Lands Research Institute, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521 Proceedings of the Symposium on Multiple-use Management of California's Hardwoods, November 12-14, 1986, San Luis Obispo, California: 453–458.
  92. ^ "The Red List of Oaks 2020" (PDF). Global Trees Campaign. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 July 2021. Retrieved 13 December 2020.
  93. ^ "One-third of the world's oaks at risk of extinction, according to new BGCI report". Botanic Gardens Conservation International. Retrieved 13 December 2020.
  94. ^ Carrero, Christina; Jerome, Diana; Beckman, Emily; Byrne, Amy; Coombes, Allen J.; et al. (2020), The Red List of Oaks 2020 (PDF), Lisle, IL: The Morton Arboretum
  95. ^ Kala, C.P. (2012). Biodiversity, communities and climate change. Teri Publications, New Delhi, ISBN 817993442X.
  96. ^ Kappelle, M. (2006). "Neotropical montane oak forests: overview and outlook", pp 449–467 in: Kappelle, M. (ed.). Ecology and conservation of neotropical montane oak forests. Ecological Studies No. 185. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, doi:10.1007/3-540-28909-7_34 ISBN 978-3-540-28908-1.
  97. ^ Lorimer, C.G. (2003) Editorial: The decline of oak forests Archived 17 March 2014 at the Wayback Machine. American Institute of Biological Sciences.
  98. ^ Hitchmough, James; Vera, F. W. M. (2002). "Grazing Ecology and Forest History". Garden History. 30 (2): 263. doi:10.2307/1587257. ISSN 0307-1243. JSTOR 1587257.
  99. ^ Carpenter, Paul (1990). Plants in the Landscape. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. p. 73. ISBN 0716718081.
  100. ^ Estonian Institute. "National symbols of Estonia". Estonian Institute. Archived from the original on 14 January 2012. Retrieved 4 January 2012.
  101. ^ Leroy, Thibault; Plomion, Christophe; Kremer, Antoine (25 July 2019). "Oak symbolism in the light of genomics". New Phytologist. 226 (4). Wiley: 1012–1017. doi:10.1111/nph.15987. ISSN 0028-646X. PMC 7166128. PMID 31183874.
  102. ^ a b "Oak as a Symbol". Venables Oak. Archived from the original on 5 May 2013. Retrieved 26 September 2012.
  103. ^ "Trees – Arbor Day Foundation". Arborday.org. Archived from the original on 28 April 2010. Retrieved 27 April 2010.
  104. ^ "Derry". Etymology Online. Retrieved 9 October 2023.
  105. ^ Schierz, Kai Uwe (2004). "Von Bonifatius bis Beuys, oder: Vom Umgang mit heiligen Eichen". In Hardy Eidam; Marina Moritz; Gerd-Rainer Riedel; Kai-Uwe Schierz (eds.). Bonifatius: Heidenopfer, Christuskreuz, Eichenkult [Boniface: Heathen Sacrifice, Christ's Cross, Oak Cult] (in German). Stadtverwaltung Erfurt. pp. 139–145.
  106. ^ "Political or Symbolic". Extended Definition: oak. Archived from the original on 30 May 2013. Retrieved 26 September 2012.
  107. ^ "Army Regulation 670-1 | Wear of appurtenances | Section 29.12 Page 278". ar670.com. Archived from the original on 22 January 2018. Retrieved 19 January 2018.
  108. ^ Glover, Julian (9 August 2006). "Thatcher's torch extinguished as Cameron's Conservatives carve new logo out of oak". The Guardian. Retrieved 9 October 2023.
  109. ^ Coalition Government 1989 To 1992. progressivedemocrats.ie
  110. ^ Frazer, James George (1922). The Golden Bough. Chapter XV: The Worship of the Oak. Archived 21 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine
  111. ^ Bell, John (1790). Bell's New Pantheon; Or, Historical Dictionary of the Gods, Demi-gods, Heroes, and Fabulous Personages of Antiquity: Also, of the Images and Idols Adored in the Pagan World; Together with Their Temples, Priests, Altars, Oracles, Fasts, Festivals, Games ... J. Bell. pp. 366–7.
  112. ^ Marja-Leena Huovinen & Kaarina Kanerva (1982). Suomen terveyskasvit: luonnon parantavat yrtit ja niiden salaisuudet (in Finnish). Helsinki: Valitut Palat. p. 256. ISBN 951-9078-87-8.
  113. ^ "Ąžuolas paprastasis". Zolininkas.lt (in Lithuanian). 21 February 2011. Retrieved 10 January 2018.
  114. ^ a b Ferber, Michael (2017). "Oak". A Dictionary of Literary Symbols (3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-1071-7211-1.
  115. ^ "Fight to save 'sacred' oak from road". BBC. 30 June 2015.
  116. ^ "Oak mythology and folklore". Trees for Life. Retrieved 29 September 2023.
  117. ^ "The Legend of the Charter Oak". New England Historical Society. 23 April 2014. Archived from the original on 23 April 2021. Retrieved 23 April 2021.
  118. ^ unspecified (26 February 2005). "Otro árbol de Gernika". El Mundo.
  119. ^ Arborecology, containing a photograph of the Millais oak Archived 28 August 2008 at the Wayback Machine. arborecology.co.uk
  120. ^ Millais, J. G. (1899) Life and Letters of Sir John Everett Millais, vol. 1, p. 166, London : Methuen.
  121. ^ Marvell, Andrew. "The Garden". Poets.org. Retrieved 29 September 2023.
  122. ^ Summers, Joseph H. (1969). "Reading Marvell's 'Garden'". The Centennial Review. 13 (1): 18–37. JSTOR 23738134. Hortus, Marvell's Latin poem which seems to be an earlier version of the English one ... both poems begin with the rejection of the worlds of ambitious action, urban life and passionate love, and celebrate a supposed entrance into an entirely new life within the garden.

Further reading

[edit]
  • Byfield, Liz (1990) An Oak Tree, Collins Book Bus, London: Collins Educational, ISBN 0-00-313526-8
  • Phillips, Roger (1979). Trees of North America and Europe, Random House, New York ISBN 0-394-50259-0.
  • Logan, William B. (2005) Oak: The Frame of Civilization, New York; London: W. W. Norton, ISBN 0-393-04773-3
  • Paterson, R. T. (1993). Use of Trees by Livestock, 5: Quercus, Chatham: Natural Resources Institute, ISBN 0-85954-365-X
  • Royston, Angela (2000). Life Cycle of an Oak Tree, Heinemann first library, Oxford: Heinemann Library, ISBN 0-431-08391-6
  • Savage, Stephen (1994). Oak Tree, Observing nature series, Hove: Wayland, ISBN 0-7502-1196-2
  • Tansley, Arthur G. (1952). Oaks and Oak Woods, Field study books, London: Methuen. OCLC 3196286.
  • Żukow-Karczewski, Marek (1988). "Dąb – król polskich drzew" ("Oak – the king of the Polish trees"), AURA: A Monthly for the Protection and Shaping of Human Environment, 9, 20–21.
[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Quercus.
Wikispecies has information related to Quercus.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oak&oldid=1249348322"