Yellow fever vaccine

Yellow fever vaccine
Yellow fever vaccine vials (Brazil)
Vaccine description
TargetYellow fever
Vaccine typeAttenuated
Clinical data
Trade namesYF-Vax, Stamaril
Other names17D vaccine
AHFS/Drugs.comMonograph
MedlinePlusa607030
Pregnancy
category
Routes of
administration		Subcutaneous
ATC code
Legal status
Legal status
Identifiers
ChemSpider
  • none
UNII
 ☒NcheckY (what is this?)  (verify)

Yellow fever vaccine is a vaccine that protects against yellow fever.[4] Yellow fever is a viral infection that occurs in Africa and South America.[4] Most people begin to develop immunity within ten days of vaccination and 99% are protected within one month, and this appears to be lifelong.[4] The vaccine can be used to control outbreaks of disease.[4] It is given either by injection into a muscle or just under the skin.[4][5]

The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends routine immunization in all countries where the disease is common.[4] This should typically occur between nine and twelve months of age.[4] Those traveling to areas where the disease occurs should also be immunized.[4] Additional doses after the first are generally not needed.[6]

The yellow fever vaccine is generally safe.[4] This includes in those with HIV infection but without symptoms.[4] Mild side effects may include headache, muscle pains, pain at the injection site, fever, and rash.[4] Severe allergies occur in about eight per million doses, serious neurological problems occur in about four per million doses, and organ failure occurs in about three per million doses.[4] It appears to be safe in pregnancy and is therefore recommended among those who will be potentially exposed.[4] It should not be given to those with very poor immune function.[7]

Yellow fever vaccine came into use in 1938.[8] It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.[9][10] The vaccine is made from weakened yellow fever virus.[4] Some countries require a yellow fever vaccination certificate before entry from a country where the disease is common.[4][5]

Medical uses

[edit]
A yellow fever vaccination certificate issued by the Soviet Union.

Targeting

[edit]

Medical experts recommend vaccinating people most at risk of contracting the virus, such as woodcutters working in tropical areas.[11] Insecticides, protective clothing, and screening of houses are helpful, but not always sufficient for mosquito control; medical experts recommend using personal insecticide spray in endemic areas.[12] In affected areas, mosquito control methods have proven effective in decreasing the number of cases.[13]

Travellers need to have the vaccine ten days prior to being in an endemic area in order to assure full immunity.[14]: 45 

Duration and effectiveness

[edit]

For most people, the vaccine remains effective permanently. People who are HIV positive at vaccination can benefit from a booster after ten years.[15]

On 17 May 2013, the World Health Organization (WHO) Strategic Advisory Group of Experts on immunization (SAGE) announced that a booster dose of yellow fever (YF) vaccine, ten years after a primary dose, is not necessary.[16] Since yellow fever vaccination began in the 1930s, only 12 known cases of yellow fever post-vaccination have been identified, after 600 million doses have been dispensed.[17] Evidence showed that among this small number of "vaccine failures", all cases developed the disease within five years of vaccination.[18] This demonstrates that immunity does not decrease with time.[19]

Schedule

[edit]

The World Health Organization recommends the vaccine between the ages of 9 and 12 months in areas where the disease is common.[4] Anyone over the age of nine months who has not been previously immunized and either lives in or is traveling to an area where the disease occurs should also be immunized.[4]

Side effects

[edit]

The yellow fever 17D vaccine is considered safe, with over 500 million doses given and very few documented cases of vaccine associated illness (62 confirmed cases and 35 deaths as of January 2019).[20] In no case of vaccine-related illness has there been evidence of the virus reverting to a virulent phenotype.[medical citation needed][21]

The majority of adverse reactions to the 17D vaccine result from allergic reaction to the eggs in which the vaccine is grown.[22] Persons with known egg allergy should discuss this with their physician prior to vaccination.[23] In addition, there is a small risk of neurologic disease and encephalitis, particularly in individuals with compromised immune systems and very young children. The 17D vaccine is contraindicated in (among others) infants between zero and six months,[24] people with thymus disorders associated with abnormal immune cell function, people with primary immunodeficiencies, and anyone with a diminished immune capacity including those taking immunosuppressant drugs.[25]

There is a small risk of more severe yellow fever-like disease associated with the vaccine. This reaction, known as yellow fever vaccine-associated acute viscerotropic disease (YEL-AVD),[26] causes a fairly severe disease closely resembling yellow fever caused by virulent strains of the virus.[27] The risk factors for YEL-AVD are not known, although it has been suggested that it may be genetic.[28] The 2'-5'-oligoadenylate synthase (OAS) component of the innate immune response has been shown to be particularly important in protection from Flavivirus infection.[29] Another reaction to the yellow fever vaccine is known as yellow fever vaccine-associated acute neurotropic disease (YEL-AND).[30]

The Canadian Medical Association published a 2001 CMAJ article entitled "Yellow fever vaccination: be sure the patient needs it".[31] The article begins by stating that of the seven people who developed system failure within two to five days of the vaccine in 1996–2001, six died "including 2 who were vaccinated even though they were planning to travel to countries where yellow fever has never been reported."[32] The article cites that "3 demonstrated histopatholic changes consistent with wild yellow fever virus."[33] The author recommends vaccination for only non-contraindicated travelers (see the articles list) and those travelers going where yellow fever activity is reported or in the endemic zone which can be found mapped at the CDC website cited below.[34] In addition, the 2010 online edition of the Center for Disease Control Traveler's Health Yellow Book states that between 1970 and 2002 only "nine cases of yellow fever were reported in unvaccinated travelers from the United States and Europe who traveled" to West Africa and South America, and 8 of the 9 died.[35] However, it goes on to cite "only 1 documented case of yellow fever in a vaccinated traveler.[36] This nonfatal case occurred in a traveler from Spain who visited several West African countries in 1988".[37]

History

[edit]

African tropical cultures had adopted burial traditions in which the deceased were buried near their habitation, including those who died of Yellow fever.[38] This ensured that people within these cultures gained immunity through a childhood case of "endemic" yellow fever through acquired immunity. This led to a lasting misperception, first by colonial authorities and foreign medical experts, that Africans have a "natural immunity"[39] to the illness. In the nineteenth century health provisioners forced abandonment of these traditional burial traditions, leading to local populations dying of yellow fever as frequently as those without such burial customs such as settler populations.[40]

The first modern attempts to develop a yellow fever vaccine followed the opening of the Panama Canal in 1912, which increased global exposure to the disease.[41] The Japanese bacteriologist Hideyo Noguchi led investigations for the Rockefeller Foundation in Ecuador that resulted in a vaccine based on his theory that the disease was caused by a leptospiral bacterium.[41] However, other investigators could not duplicate his results and the ineffective vaccine was eventually abandoned.[citation needed]

Another vaccine was developed from the "French strain" of the virus, obtained by Pasteur Institute scientists from a man in Dakar, Senegal, who survived his bout with the disease.[citation needed] This vaccine could be administered by scarification, like the smallpox vaccine, and was given in combination to produce immunity to both diseases, but it also had severe systemic and neurologic complications in a few cases.[42] Attempts to attenuate the virus used in the vaccine failed. Scientists at the Rockefeller Foundation developed another vaccine derived from the serum of an African named Asibi in 1927, the first isolation of the virus from a human.[43] It was safer but involved the use of large amounts of human serum, which limited widespread use.[44] Both vaccines were in use for several years, the Rockefeller vaccine in the Western hemisphere and England, and the Pasteur Institute vaccine in France and its African colonies.[45]

In 1937, Max Theiler, working with Hugh Smith and Eugen Haagen at the Rockefeller Foundation to improve the vaccine from the "Asibi" strain, discovered that a favorable chance mutation in the attenuated virus had produced a highly effective strain that was named 17D.[41] Following the work of Ernest Goodpasture, Theiler used chicken eggs to culture the virus. After field trials in Brazil, over one million people were vaccinated by 1939, without severe complications.[8] This vaccine was widely used by the U.S. Army during World War II.[46] For his work on the yellow fever vaccine, Theiler received the 1951 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.[47] Only the 17D vaccine remains in use today.[4]

Theiler's vaccine was responsible for the largest outbreak of hepatitis B in history, infecting 330,000 soldiers and giving 50,000 jaundice between 1941 and 1942.[48] At the time, chronic infectious hepatitis was not known, so when human serum was used in vaccine preparation, serum drawn from chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) carriers contaminated the yellow fever vaccine.[49] In 1941, researchers at Rocky Mountain Laboratories developed a safer alternative, an "aqueous-base" version of the 17D vaccine using distilled water combined with the virus grown in chicken eggs.[50] Since 1971, screening technology for HBV has been available and is routinely used in situations where HBV contamination is possible including vaccine preparation.[51]

Also in the 1930s, a French team developed the French neurotropic vaccine (FNV), which was extracted from mouse brain tissue.[52] Since this vaccine was associated with a higher incidence of encephalitis, FNV was not recommended after 1961. Vaccine 17D is still in use, and more than 400 million doses have been distributed. Little research has been done to develop new vaccines. Newer vaccines, based on vero cells, are in development (as of 2018).[53][54][55]

Manufacture and global supply

[edit]

Increases in cases of yellow fever in endemic areas of Africa and South America in the 1980s were addressed by the WHO Yellow Fever Initiative launched in the mid-2000s.[56] The initiative was supported by the Gavi Alliance, a collaboration of the WHO, UNICEF, vaccine manufacturers, and private philanthropists such as the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.[57] Gavi-supported vaccination campaigns since 2011 have covered 88 million people in 14 countries considered at "high-risk" of a yellow fever outbreak (Angola was considered "medium risk"). As of 2013, there were four WHO-qualified manufacturers: Bio-Manguinhos in Brazil (with the Oswaldo Cruz Foundation), Institute Pasteur in Dakar, Senegal, the Federal State Unitary Enterprise of Chumakov Institute in Russia, and Sanofi Pasteur, the French pharmaceutical company.[58][59] Two other manufacturers supply domestic markets: Wuhan Institute of Biological Products in China and Sanofi Pasteur in the United States.[60]

Demand for yellow fever vaccine for preventive campaigns has increased from about five million doses per year to a projected 62 million per year by 2014.[61] UNICEF reported in 2013 that supplies were insufficient. Manufacturers are producing about 35 million of the 64 million doses needed per year.[62] Demand for the yellow fever vaccine has continued to increase due to the growing number of countries implementing yellow fever vaccination as part of their routine immunization programmes.[63]

The outbreak of yellow fever in Angola and in the Democratic Republic of Congo in 2016 has raised concerns about whether the global supply of vaccine is adequate to meet the need during a large epidemic or pandemic of the disease.[64] Routine childhood immunization was suspended in other African countries to ensure an adequate supply in the vaccination campaign against the outbreak in Angola.[65] Emergency stockpiles of vaccine diverted to Angola, which consisted of about 10 million doses at the end of March 2016, had become exhausted,[58][66] but were being replenished by May 2016.[67] However, in August it was reported that about one million doses of six million shipped in February had been sent to the wrong place or not kept cold enough to ensure efficacy, resulting in shortages to fight the spreading epidemic in DR Congo.[68] As an emergency measure, experts suggested fractional dose vaccination, using a fractional dose (1/5 or 1/10 of the usual dose) to extend existing supplies of vaccine.[69][65] Others have noted that switching manufacturing processes to modern cell-culture technology might improve vaccine supply shortfalls,[60] as the manufacture of the current vaccine in chicken eggs is slow and laborious.[70] On 17 June 2016, the WHO agreed to the use of 1/5 the usual dose as an emergency measure during the ongoing outbreak in Angola and the DR Congo.[63][71] The fractional dose would not qualify for a yellow fever certificate of vaccination for travelers. Later studies found that the fractional dose was just as protective as the full dose, even 10 years after vaccination.[72]

As of February 2021, UNICEF reported awarded contract prices of ranging from US$0.97 to US$1.444 per dose under multi-year contracts with various suppliers.[73]

Travel requirements

[edit]
  Risk countries (WHO designation)
  Partial risk countries (WHO designation)
Vaccination against yellow fever 10 days before entering this country/territory is required for travellers coming from...
  All countries
  Risk countries (including airport transfers)[note 1]
  Risk countries (excluding airport transfers)[note 2]
  No requirement (risk country)[note 3]
  No requirement (non-risk country)
See also: Vaccination requirements for international travel

Travellers who wish to enter certain countries or territories must be vaccinated against yellow fever 10 days before crossing the border, and be able to present a vaccination record/certificate at the border checks.[14]: 45  In most cases, this travel requirement depends on whether the country they are travelling from has been designated by the World Health Organization as being a 'country with risk of yellow fever transmission'.[74] In a few countries, it does not matter which country the traveller comes from: everyone who wants to enter these countries must be vaccinated against yellow fever.[75] There are exemptions for newborn children; in most cases, any child who is at least 9 months or 1 year old needs to be vaccinated.[76]

Yellow fever vaccination requirements for international travel (January 2023)[76]
Country or territory Status Vaccination required for travellers coming from Traveller age
 Albania No risk Risk countries 1 year or older
 Algeria No risk Risk countries[note 4] 1 year or older
 Angola Risk country All countries 9 months or older
 Antigua and Barbuda No risk Risk countries 1 year or older
 Argentina Risk provinces:
Misiones, Corrientes 		No[note 3] –
 Aruba No risk Risk countries[note 4] 9 months or older
 Australia No risk Risk countries[note 4] 1 year or older
 Bahamas No risk Risk countries[note 4] 1 year or older
 Bahrain No risk Risk countries[note 4] 9 months or older
 Bangladesh No risk Risk countries[note 5] 1 year or older
 Barbados No risk Risk countries 1 year or older
 Benin Risk country All countries 1 year or older
 Bolivia Risk country Risk countries 1 year or older
 Bonaire No risk Risk countries[note 4] 9 months or older
 Botswana No risk Risk countries[note 5] 1 year or older
 Brazil Risk country No[note 3] –
 Brunei No risk Risk countries[note 4] 9 months or older
 Burkina Faso Risk country All countries 9 months or older
 Burundi Risk country All countries 9 months or older
 Cabo Verde No risk Risk countries[note 4] 1 year or older
 Cambodia No risk Risk countries[note 4] 1 year or older
 Cameroon Risk country All countries 9 months or older
 Central African Republic Risk country All countries 9 months or older
 Chad Risk country Risk countries 9 months or older
 China No risk Risk countries[note 5] 9 months or older
 Christmas Island No risk Risk countries[note 4] 1 year or older
 Colombia Risk country Risk countries[note 4] 1 year or older
 Congo-Brazzaville Risk country All countries 9 months or older
 Congo-Kinshasa Risk country All countries 9 months or older
 Costa Rica No risk Risk countries 9 months or older
 Côte d'Ivoire Risk country All countries 9 months or older
 Cuba No risk Risk countries[note 4] 9 months or older
 Curaçao No risk Risk countries[note 4] 9 months or older
 Djibouti No risk Risk countries[note 4] 1 year or older
 Dominica No risk Risk countries[note 4] 1 year or older
 Dominican Republic No risk Risk countries[note 4] 1 year or older
 Ecuador Risk country Risk countries[note 4] 1 year or older
 Egypt No risk Risk countries[note 4] 9 months or older
 El Salvador No risk Risk countries[note 4] 1 year or older
 Equatorial Guinea Risk country Risk countries 9 months or older
 Eritrea No risk Risk countries 9 months or older
 Eswatini No risk Risk countries[note 5] 9 months or older
 Ethiopia Risk country Risk countries[note 4] 9 months or older
 Fiji No risk Risk countries[note 4] 1 year or older
 French Guiana Risk country All countries 1 year or older
 French Polynesia No risk Risk countries[note 4] 9 months or older
 Gabon Risk country All countries 1 year or older
 Gambia Risk country Risk countries 9 months or older
 Ghana Risk country All countries 9 months or older
 Grenada No risk Risk countries[note 4] 1 year or older
 Guadeloupe No risk Risk countries[note 4] 1 year or older
 Guatemala No risk Risk countries[note 4] 1 year or older
 Guinea Risk country Risk countries 9 months or older
 Guinea-Bissau Risk country All countries 1 year or older
 Guyana Risk country Risk countries[note 5] 1 year or older
 Haiti No risk Risk countries 1 year or older
 Honduras No risk Risk countries[note 4] 1 year or older
 India No risk Risk countries[note 5] 9 months or older
 Indonesia No risk Risk countries 9 months or older
 Iran No risk Risk countries[note 4] 9 months or older
 Iraq No risk Risk countries[note 4] 9 months or older
 Jamaica No risk Risk countries[note 4] 1 year or older
 Jordan No risk Risk countries[note 4] 1 year or older
 Kenya Risk country Risk countries 1 year or older
 Liberia Risk country Risk countries 9 months or older
 Libya No risk Risk countries 1 year or older
 Madagascar No risk Risk countries[note 4] 9 months or older
 Malawi No risk Risk countries[note 4] 1 year or older
 Malaysia No risk Risk countries[note 4] 1 year or older
 Maldives No risk Risk countries[note 4] 9 months or older
 Mali Risk country All countries 1 year or older
 Malta No risk Risk countries[note 4] 9 months or older
 Martinique No risk Risk countries[note 4] 1 year or older
 Mauritania Risk country Risk countries 1 year or older
 Mayotte No risk Risk countries[note 4] 1 year or older
 Montserrat No risk Risk countries[note 5] 1 year or older
 Mozambique No risk Risk countries[note 4] 9 months or older
 Myanmar No risk Risk countries[note 4] 1 year or older
 Namibia No risk Risk countries[note 4] 9 months or older
   Nepal No risk Risk countries[note 4] 1 year or older
 New Caledonia No risk Risk countries[note 4] 1 year or older
 Nicaragua No risk Risk countries 1 year or older
 Niger Risk country All countries 1 year or older
 Nigeria Risk country Risk countries[note 5] 9 months or older
 Niue No risk Risk countries 9 months or older
 North Korea No risk Risk countries 1 year or older
 Oman No risk Risk countries[note 4] 9 months or older
 Pakistan No risk Risk countries 1 year or older
 Panama Risk country Risk countries[note 4] 1 year or older
 Papua New Guinea No risk Risk countries[note 5] 1 year or older
 Paraguay Risk country Risk countries 1 year or older
 Peru Risk country No[note 3] –
 Philippines No risk Risk countries[note 4] 1 year or older
 Pitcairn Islands No risk Risk countries 1 year or older
 Qatar No risk Risk countries 9 month or older
 Rwanda No risk Risk countries 1 year or older
 Saint Barthélemy No risk Risk countries[note 4] 1 year or older
 Saint Helena No risk Risk countries 1 year or older
 Saint Kitts and Nevis No risk Risk countries 1 year or older
 Saint Lucia No risk Risk countries 9 months or older
 Saint Martin No risk Risk countries[note 4] 1 year or older
 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines No risk Risk countries 1 year or older
 Samoa No risk Risk countries[note 4] 1 year or older
 São Tomé and Príncipe No risk Risk countries[note 5] 1 year or older
 Saudi Arabia No risk Risk countries[note 4] 9 months or older
 Senegal Risk country Risk countries[note 5] 9 months or older
 Seychelles No risk Risk countries[note 4] 1 year or older
 Sierra Leone Risk country All countries Unknown
 Singapore No risk Risk countries[note 4] 1 year or older
 Sint Eustatius No risk Risk countries 6 months or older
 Sint Maarten No risk Risk countries 9 months or older
 Solomon Islands No risk Risk countries 9 months or older
 South Africa No risk Risk countries[note 4] 1 year or older
 South Sudan Risk country All countries 9 months or older
 Sri Lanka No risk Risk countries[note 4] 9 months or older
 Sudan Risk provinces:
South of Khartoum or Sahara Desert 		No –
 Suriname Risk country Risk countries[note 4] 1 year or older
 Tanzania No risk Risk countries[note 4] 1 year or older
 Thailand No risk Risk countries[note 4] 9 month or older
 Togo Risk country All countries 9 months or older
 Trinidad and Tobago Risk region:
Trinidad 		Risk countries 1 year or older
 Uganda Risk country All countries 1 year or older
 United Arab Emirates No risk Risk countries[note 4] 9 months or older
 Venezuela Risk country Risk countries[note 4] 1 year or older
 Wallis and Futuna No risk Risk countries[note 4] 1 year or older
 Zambia No risk Risk countries[note 4] 1 year or older
 Zimbabwe No risk Risk countries[note 4] 9 months or older
  1. ^ Also required for travellers having transited (more than 12 hours) through a risk country's airport.
  2. ^ Not required for travellers having transited through a risk country's airport.
  3. ^ a b c d The WHO has designated (parts of) Argentina, Brazil and Peru as risk countries, but these countries do not require incoming travellers to vaccinate against yellow fever.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd be bf bg bh bi Also required for travellers having transited more than 12 hours through a risk country's airport.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Also required for travellers having transited any time through a risk country's airport.

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Use During Pregnancy and Breastfeeding
  2. ^ "Stamaril powder and solvent for suspension for injection in pre-filled syringe - Summary of Product Characteristics (SmPC)". (emc). 9 September 2019. Retrieved 28 December 2019.
  3. ^ "YF-Vax". U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). 6 August 2019. Retrieved 28 December 2019.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r World Health Organization (July 2013). "Vaccines and vaccination against yellow fever. WHO position paper -- June 2013". Weekly Epidemiological Record. 88 (27): 269–283. hdl:10665/242089. PMID 23909008.
  5. ^ a b "Yellow Fever Vaccine - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics". www.sciencedirect.com. Retrieved 30 April 2022.
  6. ^ Staples JE, Bocchini JA, Rubin L, Fischer M (June 2015). "Yellow Fever Vaccine Booster Doses: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices, 2015". MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 64 (23): 647–650. PMC 4584737. PMID 26086636.
  7. ^ "Yellow Fever Vaccine". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 13 December 2011. Archived from the original on 9 December 2015. Retrieved 15 December 2015.
  8. ^ a b Norrby E (November 2007). "Yellow fever and Max Theiler: the only Nobel Prize for a virus vaccine". The Journal of Experimental Medicine. 204 (12): 2779–2784. doi:10.1084/jem.20072290. PMC 2118520. PMID 18039952.
  9. ^ World Health Organization (2019). World Health Organization model list of essential medicines: 21st list 2019. Geneva: World Health Organization. hdl:10665/325771. WHO/MVP/EMP/IAU/2019.06. License: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO.
  10. ^ World Health Organization (2021). World Health Organization model list of essential medicines: 22nd list (2021). Geneva: World Health Organization. hdl:10665/345533. WHO/MHP/HPS/EML/2021.02.
  11. ^ "How WHO is supporting ongoing vaccination efforts during the COVID-19 pandemic". www.who.int. Retrieved 28 April 2022.
  12. ^ Okumu FO, Moore SJ (July 2011). "Combining indoor residual spraying and insecticide-treated nets for malaria control in Africa: a review of possible outcomes and an outline of suggestions for the future". Malaria Journal. 10 (1): 208. doi:10.1186/1475-2875-10-208. PMC 3155911. PMID 21798053.
  13. ^ "Joint Statement on Mosquito Control in the United States from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)". Environmental Protection Agency. 3 May 2000. Archived from the original on 10 October 2006. Retrieved 25 June 2006.
  14. ^ a b "International Travel and Health. Chapter 6 - Vaccine-preventable diseases and vaccines (2019 update)" (PDF). World Health Organization. United Nations. 2020. Retrieved 29 November 2020.
  15. ^ Schnyder JL, de Jong HK, Bache BE, Schaumburg F, Grobusch MP (January 2024). "Long-term immunity following yellow fever vaccination: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Lancet Glob Health. 12 (3): e445–e456. doi:10.1016/S2214-109X(23)00556-9. PMID 38272044. S2CID 267128946.
  16. ^ "Strategic Advisory Group of Experts on Immunization (SAGE)". www.who.int. Retrieved 28 April 2022.
  17. ^ "Yellow fever vaccination booster not needed". www.who.int. Retrieved 28 April 2022.
  18. ^ "Vaccine Failure - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics". www.sciencedirect.com. Retrieved 28 April 2022.
  19. ^ "Vaccines" (Press release). World Health Organization (WHO). Archived from the original on 9 June 2013.
  20. ^ "What are the risks of dying from having the yellow fever vaccine?". 11 January 2019.
  21. ^ Harvey WT, Carabelli AM, Jackson B, Gupta RK, Thomson EC, Harrison EM, et al. (July 2021). "SARS-CoV-2 variants, spike mutations and immune escape". Nature Reviews. Microbiology. 19 (7): 409–424. doi:10.1038/s41579-021-00573-0. PMC 8167834. PMID 34075212.
  22. ^ Rutkowski K, Ewan PW, Nasser SM (2013). "Administration of yellow fever vaccine in patients with egg allergy". International Archives of Allergy and Immunology. 161 (3): 274–278. doi:10.1159/000346350. PMID 23548550. S2CID 25697965.
  23. ^ CDC (10 December 2021). "Flu Vaccine and People with Egg Allergies". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 28 April 2022.
  24. ^ "Yellow Fever Vaccine Information Statement". U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). April 2020. Archived from the original on 21 September 2013.
  25. ^ "Yellow Fever". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Archived from the original on 16 January 2013.
  26. ^ Bae HG, Domingo C, Tenorio A, de Ory F, Muñoz J, Weber P, et al. (June 2008). "Immune response during adverse events after 17D-derived yellow fever vaccination in Europe". The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 197 (11): 1577–1584. doi:10.1086/587844. PMID 18419548.
  27. ^ "Yellow fever". www.who.int. Retrieved 28 April 2022.
  28. ^ Rafferty E, Duclos P, Yactayo S, Schuster M (December 2013). "Risk of yellow fever vaccine-associated viscerotropic disease among the elderly: a systematic review". Vaccine. 31 (49): 5798–5805. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2013.09.030. PMID 24079979.
  29. ^ Deo S, Patel TR, Dzananovic E, Booy EP, Zeid K, McEleney K, et al. (20 March 2014). "Activation of 2' 5'-oligoadenylate synthetase by stem loops at the 5'-end of the West Nile virus genome". PLOS ONE. 9 (3): e92545. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...992545D. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0092545. PMC 3961380. PMID 24651762.
  30. ^ Florczak-Wyspiańska J, Nawotczyńska E, Kozubski W (January 2017). "Yellow fever vaccine-associated neurotropic disease (YEL-AND) - A case report". Neurologia I Neurochirurgia Polska. 51 (1): 101–105. doi:10.1016/j.pjnns.2016.09.002. PMID 27707454.
  31. ^ Weir E (October 2001). "Yellow fever vaccination: be sure the patient needs it". CMAJ. 165 (7): 941. PMC 81520. PMID 11599337.
  32. ^ "Yellow fever". www.kidney.de. Retrieved 28 April 2022.
  33. ^ Wezam T. "Where are the Scientists of World Health Organization". Academia.edu.
  34. ^ "Yellow Fever in Nigeria - Alert - Level 2, Practice Enhanced Precautions - Travel Health Notices | Travelers' Health". wwwnc.cdc.gov. Retrieved 28 April 2022.
  35. ^ Centers for Disease Control Prevention (CDC) (October 2008). "Updated recommendations for isolation of persons with mumps". MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 57 (40): 1103–1105. doi:10.1016/B978-070203481-7.50007-4. PMC 7150274. PMID 18846033.
  36. ^ "Yellow Fever - Chapter 4 - 2020 Yellow Book | Travelers' Health | CDC". wwwnc.cdc.gov. Retrieved 28 April 2022.
  37. ^ Gershman M, Schroeder B, Staples JE (June 2011). "Yellow Fever". In Brunette GW (ed.). Yellow Book: CDC Health Information for International Travel 2012. New York: Oxford University Press, Incorporated. ISBN 978-0-19-976901-8. Archived from the original on 1 July 2011.
  38. ^ Kerr JA, Downs WG (1956). Last refuge of Yellow Fever. Retrieved 28 April 2022.
  39. ^ "Types of Immunity to a Disease | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 6 April 2022. Retrieved 24 April 2022.
  40. ^ Watts S (1997). Epidemics and History: Disease, Power, and Imperialism. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 234. ISBN 0-300-07015-2.
  41. ^ a b c Frierson JG (June 2010). "The yellow fever vaccine: a history". The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine. 83 (2): 77–85. PMC 2892770. PMID 20589188.
  42. ^ Langley JM, Aoki F, Ward BJ, McGeer A, Angel JB, Stiver G, et al. (February 2011). "A nasally administered trivalent inactivated influenza vaccine is well tolerated, stimulates both mucosal and systemic immunity, and potentially protects against influenza illness". Vaccine. 29 (10): 1921–1928. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2010.12.100. PMID 21219987.
  43. ^ Stokes A, Bauer JH, Hudson NP (1928). "Experimental transmission of yellow fever to laboratory animals". Am J Trop Med Hyg. 8 (2): 103–104. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.1928.s1-8.103.
  44. ^ "Blood safety and availability". www.who.int. Retrieved 28 April 2022.
  45. ^ Hajj Hussein I, Chams N, Chams S, El Sayegh S, Badran R, Raad M, et al. (2015). "Vaccines Through Centuries: Major Cornerstones of Global Health". Frontiers in Public Health. 3: 269. doi:10.3389/fpubh.2015.00269. PMC 4659912. PMID 26636066.
  46. ^ McNeill JR (1 April 2004). "Yellow Jack and Geopolitics: Environment, Epidemics, and the Struggles for Empire in the American Tropics, 1650–1825". OAH Magazine of History. 18 (3): 9–13. doi:10.1093/maghis/18.3.9. Archived from the original on 20 December 2016.
  47. ^ "Max Theiler – Biography". Archived from the original on 20 January 2009. Retrieved 15 January 2009.
  48. ^ "World War II Hepatitis Outbreak Was Biggest in History". Associated Press. 16 April 1987.
  49. ^ "Hepatitis B". www.who.int. Retrieved 28 April 2022.
  50. ^ Hettrick GR (Winter 2012). "Vaccine Production in the Bitterroot Valley during World War II: How Rocky Mountain Laboratory Protected American Forces from Yellow Fever". Montana The Magazine of Western History. 62 (4): 56–57. JSTOR 24414669.
  51. ^ "Protection Against Viral Hepatitis Recommendations of the Immunization Practices Advisory Committee (ACIP)". www.cdc.gov. Retrieved 28 April 2022.
  52. ^ Beck AS, Wood TG, Widen SG, Thompson JK, Barrett AD (September 2018). "Analysis By Deep Sequencing of Discontinued Neurotropic Yellow Fever Vaccine Strains". Scientific Reports. 8 (1): 13408. Bibcode:2018NatSR...813408B. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-31085-2. PMC 6128858. PMID 30194325.
  53. ^ Tolle MA (April 2009). "Mosquito-borne diseases". Current Problems in Pediatric and Adolescent Health Care. 39 (4): 97–140. doi:10.1016/j.cppeds.2009.01.001. PMID 19327647.
  54. ^ National Institutes of Health (27 July 2016). "NIH launches early-stage yellow fever vaccine trial" (Press release). United States Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved 14 July 2019.
  55. ^ National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) (1 June 2018), A Phase I Trial to Evaluate the Safety, Reactogenicity, and Immunogenicity of MVA-BN Yellow Fever Vaccine With and Without Montanide ISA-720 Adjuvant in 18-45 Year Old Healthy Volunteers (NCT number: NCT02743455), United States National Library of Medicine, retrieved 14 July 2019.
  56. ^ "The Yellow fever initiative: an introduction". World Health Organization (WHO). Archived from the original on 10 May 2016. Retrieved 23 April 2016.
  57. ^ "COVAX Facility". www.gavi.org. Retrieved 28 April 2022.
  58. ^ a b Kupferschmidt K (4 April 2016). "Angolan yellow fever outbreak highlights dangerous vaccine shortage". Science. Archived from the original on 25 April 2016. Retrieved 24 April 2016.
  59. ^ "Yellow Fever Vaccine: Current Outlook" (PDF). Unicef. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 23 April 2016.
  60. ^ a b Barrett AD (July 2016). "Yellow Fever in Angola and Beyond--The Problem of Vaccine Supply and Demand". The New England Journal of Medicine. 375 (4): 301–303. doi:10.1056/NEJMp1606997. PMID 27276108. S2CID 7983551.
  61. ^ "Fever Vaccine: Current Outlook November 2013" (PDF). UNICEF. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 23 April 2016.
  62. ^ "Complacency Led to Resurgence of Yellow Fever". globalhealthnow.org. Archived from the original on 7 May 2016. Retrieved 23 April 2016.
  63. ^ a b World Health Organization (July 2016). Fractional dose yellow fever vaccine as a dose-sparing option for outbreak response: WHO Secretariat information paper. hdl:10665/246236. WHO/YF/SAGE/16.1.
  64. ^ "Yellow Fever Deaths Reach 250 in Angola | HealthMap". healthmap.org. Archived from the original on 29 April 2016. Retrieved 28 April 2016.
  65. ^ a b Monath TP, Woodall JP, Gubler DJ, Yuill TM, Mackenzie JS, Martins RM, et al. (April 2016). "Yellow fever vaccine supply: a possible solution". Lancet. 387 (10028): 1599–1600. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(16)30195-7. PMID 27116054. S2CID 13106004.
  66. ^ "Angola extends yellow fever vaccination campaign to Huambo and Benguela provinces". World Health Organization (WHO) (Press release). Archived from the original on 23 April 2016. Retrieved 24 April 2016.
  67. ^ Kupferschmidt K (19 May 2016). "Yellow fever threat is 'serious' but not an 'emergency,' WHO says". Science. doi:10.1126/science.aaf5736. ISSN 0036-8075.
  68. ^ "UN bungles response to Africa's yellow fever outbreak". Archived from the original on 6 August 2016. Retrieved 5 August 2016.
  69. ^ "Yellow fever vaccine: WHO position on the use of fractional doses – June 2017". Weekly Epidemiological Record. 92 (25): 345–350. June 2017. hdl:10665/255754. PMID 28643507.
  70. ^ "NIH launches early-stage yellow fever vaccine trial". 26 July 2016. Archived from the original on 26 August 2016. Retrieved 15 August 2016.
  71. ^ "Lower doses of yellow fever vaccine could be used in emergencies". World Health Organization (WHO) (Press release). 17 June 2016. Archived from the original on 18 June 2016. Retrieved 19 June 2016.
  72. ^ Soucheray S (26 November 2018). "Study affirms fractional dosing with yellow fever vaccine". CIDRAP News. Retrieved 8 June 2022.
  73. ^ "Yellow Fever vaccines prices 05-02-2021" (PDF). Unicef. Retrieved 13 December 2022.
  74. ^ "Countries with risk of yellow fever transmission and countries requiring yellow fever vaccination (May 2021)". www.who.int. Retrieved 28 April 2022.
  75. ^ "Nigeria - Traveler view | Travelers' Health | CDC". wwwnc.cdc.gov. Retrieved 28 April 2022.
  76. ^ a b "Countries with risk of yellow fever transmission and countries requiring yellow fever vaccination" (PDF). World Health Organization. United Nations. 3 January 2023. Retrieved 3 August 2024.
[edit]
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yellow_fever_vaccine&oldid=1249616443"