Cow demons and snake spirits

Cow demons and snake spirits (Chinese: 牛鬼蛇神; pinyin: Niúguǐshéshén), also rendered in English as ox-demons and snake-spirits^[1]: 219 is a Chinese term used during the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976) to demonize perceived enemies. Tang dynasty poet Du Mu (803–852) coined the term in the preface of a poetry collection by Li He (791–817) to praise the fantastical elements in Li's poetry.

The term is rooted in Buddhist demonology.^[1]: 219 The poet Du Mu first used the term during the Tang dynasty in a preface describing the supernatural in Li He's poetry.^[1]: 219

Mao Zedong first began using the term in his speeches during spring 1957.^[1]: 216 He first used it in March of that year, referring to ghost plays in traditional operas:^{[1]: 219–220}

I don't approve of ox-demons and snake-spirits. Let them be performed so we can criticize them. . . . There are plenty of ox-demons and snake spirits in society! Not all Chinese people believe in ghosts, and there is nothing to fear about such performances. Many young people do not know what ox-demons and snake-spirits are, so they should watch some of these for educational purposes.

An admirer of Li, Mao in the 1960s frequently used this term to refer to reactionary elements and those he deemed class enemies. In 1966, after Chen Boda (the leader of the Cultural Revolution Group) took over the official newspaper of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, People's Daily, an editorial titled Sweep Away All Cow Demons and Snake Spirits (横扫一切牛鬼蛇神) published on June 1, 1966, called for a nationwide struggle against these elements. "Cow demons and snake spirits" became one of the most popular terms during the Cultural Revolution, a term used to denounce and dehumanize any "enemy", real or perceived.

In her first public speech in June 1964 at a Peking Opera convention, Jiang Qing criticized regional opera troupes for glorifying emperors, generals, scholars, and other ox-demons and snake-spirits.^[2]: 229

The exact definition of the term (like most things in the Cultural Revolution) was unclear and subject to interpretation, but the major enemies of the Cultural Revolution were:

• Five Black Categories - Landlords, rightists, rich farmers, counter revolutionaries, and "bad elements"
• Capitalist roaders
• Stinking Old Ninths (intellectuals)
• Hanjian (traitors)

Red Guard art often used the slogan "Sweep Away All Ox-Demons and Snake-Spirits," frequently with imagery of brooms.^[1]: 222 Brooms were traditional weapons or tools of spirit mediums.^[1]: 222

• Guo, Jian; Song, Yongyi; Zhou, Yuan (2009). The A to Z of the Chinese Cultural Revolution. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-6870-0.