Hunt-class destroyer

For other ship classes, see Hunt class.

HMS Blean
HMS Blean, a Type III Hunt-class destroyer
Class overview
Builders
Operators
Built1939–1943
In commission1940–1963
Completed86
Lost23

The Hunt class was a class of escort destroyers built for the Royal Navy during the early stages of the Second World War. The first vessels were ordered in early 1939 to meet the need for compact, well-armed, escort capable of fleet screening and convoy protection.[1]

The class saw extensive wartime service, particularly in the defence of coastal convoys in the North Sea and English Channel, as well as in operations in the Mediterranean, including the Malta Convoys, the North African campaign, and the invasion of Sicily.[2]

Ships in the class were named after British fox hunting packs or hunting region, maintaining a tradition of naming Royal Navy vessels after countryside themes associated with rural Britain.[3]

The name 'Hunt class' continues in modern naval service with the current class of mine countermeasure vessels. These later vessels, introduced in the late 20th century, are built of glass-reinforced plastic (GRP) hulls to reduce magnetic signature and are minesweepers and minehunters.[4]

History

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The Royal Navy needed two types of destroyer before the Second World War, large, heavily armed vessels designed for fleet operations and smaller, more economical ships for trade protection.[2] Older fleet destroyers were initially reallocated for escort work, they proved unsuited to the role. Their machinery, designed for high-speed manoeuvres, was inefficient at the slower speeds required for convoy escort, significantly reducing their operational range. Their hull forms, built for speed, offered poor sea-keeping at low speeds that was compounded by the addition of new equipment to their superstructures.[4]

A new type of warship was developed, this "fast escort vessel" sacrificed some gun and torpedo armament, as well as some speed, in favour of reduced cost, simplified construction and suitability for mass production. These vessels were later named "escort destroyers".[1] Eighty-six Hunt-class escort destroyers were completed during and shortly after the Second World War. Of these, seventy-two entered service with the Royal Navy and fourteen were transferred to Allied navies under various wartime agreements. A further fourteen ships were transferred to foreign navies in the post-war period.[3]

Wartime Transfers
Name Recipient navy Notes
Haldon Free French Navy Renamed La Combattante
Bedale Free Polish Navy Renamed ORP Ślązak
Oakley (i) Free Polish Navy Renamed ORP Kujawiak (lost 1942)
Silverton Free Polish Navy Renamed ORP Krakowiak
Bolebroke Royal Hellenic Navy Renamed Pindos
Border Royal Hellenic Navy Renamed Adrias
Catterick Royal Hellenic Navy Renamed Hastings
Hatherleigh Royal Hellenic Navy Renamed Kanaris
Modbury Royal Hellenic Navy Renamed Miaoulis
Bramham Royal Hellenic Navy Renamed Themistoklis
Hursley Royal Hellenic Navy Renamed Kriti
Glaisdale Royal Norwegian Navy Renamed Narvik
Eskdale Royal Norwegian Navy
Badsworth Royal Norwegian Navy Renamed Arendal

Design

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The Hunt-class destroyers were based on the 1938 escort sloop Bittern, a 262-foot (80 m) vessel displacing 1,190 tons, powered by 3,300 shp (2,500 kW) on geared steam turbines, capable of speeds up to 18.75 kn (34.73 km/h; 21.58 mph). Her main armament comprised three twin Mark XIX mounts for the 4 in (100 mm) QF Mark XVI dual-purpose gun, which, when engaging aircraft, were directed by the Fuze Keeping Clock anti-aircraft fire control system.[4] The Hunt class was intended to carry a similar armament, with the addition of a quadruple QF 2-pounder Mark VII mount. The hull was designed to be the same length as Bittern, but with a beam reduced by 8 feet (2 m) and increased installed power of 19,000 shp (14,000 kW) to deliver a maximum speed of 27 knots (50 km/h).[1]

The first twenty vessels were ordered in March and April 1939. They were constructed to full Admiralty standards, consistent with contemporary destroyer practice, in contrast to wartime frigate designs, which more closely followed commercial shipbuilding norms.[5] The Hunts presented a significant design challenge. The original concept sacrificed range, beam, and hull size to meet urgent wartime requirements, limiting the class to operations in the North Sea and Mediterranean Sea. These constraints, combined with an overburdened design staff, led to miscalculations. When detailed weight and stability assessments were finally completed, it was found that the design had a centre of gravity higher than expected. As a result, the hull beam had to be increased during construction. Despite this adjustment, the first ships were still found to be up to 70 tons overweight and top-heavy, resulting in dangerously poor stability.

The first twenty ships, already under construction by the time the design flaw was confirmed, had to be modified. The aft 'X' mounting for the 4-inch gun was removed to lower topside weight, and approximately 50 tons of permanent ballast were added to restore some measure of stability. These modified ships became known as the Type I group. The quadruple 2-pounder mount, originally placed abaft the funnel, was moved to the 'X' position on the quarterdeck, which provided a better field of fire.[6] The design deficiency in the Type I Hunt-class destroyers was addressed by modifying the hull dimensions. This involved splitting the hull lengthwise and inserting a 2.5 feet (0.8 m) longitudinal section, increasing the beam to 31 feet 6 inches (9.60 m). This improvement provided sufficient stability to carry the originally intended armament without compromising safety. Vessels built to this improved specification formed the Type II group. These also featured a revised bridge layout, with the compass platform extended forward to meet the face of the wheelhouse.[4]

Under the 1939 Emergency War Programme, 36 additional Hunt-class ships were ordered. Of these, three were completed to the original Type I specifications due to construction already being under way when the redesign was implemented.[1] The increased beam of the Type II design also allowed for a substantial rise in depth charge capacity, from 40 charges in the Type I to as many as 110. In the 1940 building programme, it was decided that torpedoes were needed, particularly for operations in the Mediterranean. The next 27 vessels were completed to a further revised design, the Type III group. These ships sacrificed the 'Y' 4-inch gun mounting on the quarterdeck to accommodate a pair of 21-inch torpedo tubes amidships. This modification required the moving of the searchlight to the aft shelter deck.[5] Type III Hunts were readily identifiable by their straight funnels with sloping tops and by the absence of rake in the foremast. Fourteen ships of this group had their stabiliser fins omitted or removed during construction, with the vacant space used for additional fuel oil storage, thereby extending operational range.[4]

A Hunt-class destroyer in dry dock, painting from the Royal Museums Greenwich

The final two ships of the Hunt class were developed independently from the main series and were based on a private design prepared before the war by John I. Thornycroft & Company. Although initially rejected by the Admiralty in 1938, a revised version was accepted in 1940. These ships became known as the Type IV group. They featured a novel hull form, with a U-shaped forward section incorporating a distinctive double knuckle, and a full centre section with a squared turn at the bilge. This hull configuration was intended to improve low-speed efficiency and reduce rolling, thereby enhancing their effectiveness as gun platforms without the need for ballast or stabilisers. Trials demonstrated an 8 per cent improvement in steaming efficiency at 20 knots (37 km/h), in exchange for only a 2 per cent reduction in maximum speed when proceeding full ahead.[4]

A prominent feature of the Type IV design was the long fo'c'sle, which extended over most of the ship's length. This not only provided significantly improved internal accommodation, a common issue in wartime ships with enlarged crews but also allowed the vessel to be fought almost entirely under cover. The 'X' 4-inch gun mounting was now located at fo'c'sle deck level, rather than on a raised shelter deck as in earlier types. Although the hull was large enough to carry a triple set of 21-inch torpedo tubes, these were also positioned at fo'c'sle deck level, which necessitated the installation of their training gear on a lower deck due to space constraints.

The close-range anti-aircraft armament consisted of a pair of 20 mm Oerlikon guns mounted on the bridge wings and a pair of power-operated twin 0.5-inch Vickers machine guns amidships. The Vickers mountings proved ineffective in service and were soon replaced by the more capable twin Oerlikon Mark V power-operated mountings.[1] The improved accommodation and shelter provided by the extended fo'c'sle were found to be highly beneficial in operational conditions. Crews could remain closed up at action stations for long periods, often in severe weather, with a degree of protection that earlier designs lacked. Although the Type IV was ultimately a developmental cul-de-sac, its features influenced later post-war escort vessel designs. All Hunt-class ships, with the exception of three Type II vessels and the Type IV HMS Brissenden, were originally fitted with fin stabilisers forward to reduce rolling and improve stability as gun platforms. Most of the Type III ships later had these stabilisers removed to increase fuel capacity by 63 tons, thereby extending operational endurance.[4]

Wartime Hunt-class losses

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19 Hunt-class destroyers were lost to enemy action, mines, collisions or accidents. The table summarises the ships lost, dates, causes, and crew casualties where known.[citation needed]

Hunt-class Destroyers Lost in the Second World War[citation needed]
Name Lost Cause Crew lost
HMS Airedale 1942 Aircraft 45 killed
HMS Aldenham 1944 Mine 126 + 2 Yugoslav partisans
HMS Berkeley 1942 Aircraft (Dieppe Raid) 16 + Canadian troops
HMS Blean 1942 Submarine 89 killed
HMS Dulverton 1943 Aircraft (glider bomb) 78 killed
HMS Eskdale 1943 E-boats 25 killed
HMS Eridge 1942 Italian motor torpedo boat MTSM-228 5 killed
HMS Exmoor 1941 E-boat 100 killed
HMS Grove 1942 German submarine U-77 110 killed
HMS Heythrop 1942 German submarine U-652 16 killed
HMS Holcombe 1943 German submarine U-593 81 killed
HMS Hurworth 1943 Mine 133 killed
HMS Limbourne 1943 German torpedo boat T22 40 killed
HMS Penylan 1942 E-boat 40 killed
HMS Puckeridge 1943 German submarine U-617 62 killed
HMS Quorn 1944 human torpedo 130 killed
HMS Southwold 1942 Mine 5 killed
HMS Tynedale 1943 German submarine U-593 73 killed
HMS Wensleydale 1944 collided with LST 367 (CTL) -

Modifications

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The Hunt-class destroyer was regarded as a successful and well-balanced design, although limited reserve displacement restricted the scope for modifications.[1] As Oerlikon 20 mm anti-aircraft guns became available, ships were fitted with a pair of single mountings in the bridge wings. The main armament fire control was enhanced by the addition of Type 285 radar, integrated with the Rangefinder-Director Mark I installed on the bridge. For air warning, the initial fit was the Type 286 radar installed at the masthead, which was superseded by Type 291. HMS Cotswold, Silverton, Bleasdale and Wensleydale had their searchlights replaced by the Type 272 radar, a centimetric target indication set developed later in the war.[7] Ships employed in East Coast convoys, all Type I vessels and the Type IIs HMS Avon Vale, Blencathra and Liddesdale and the Type IIIs Bleasdale and Glaisdale were equipped with a QF 2-pounder "bow chaser" gun intended for E-boat defence.[8] Later in the war, most Type III ships had their single Oerlikon mounts replaced by powered twin Mark V mountings; some were fitted with two 40 mm Bofors guns, mounted forward of the wheelhouse and on the quarterdeck respectively.[4]

Post-war modifications

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Following the end of the Second World War, a number of Hunt-class destroyers remained in service or were reactivated for emerging Cold War. Several ships underwent modernisation to improve habitability, update equipment, and enhance their utility for secondary roles. Many vessels had their wartime anti-aircraft armament rationalised or reduced, often retaining only a pair of twin 40 mm Bofors guns in powered Mark V mountings. The older 20 mm Oerlikons were generally removed due to their limited effectiveness against post-war threats.[4] Some ships, including HMS Brecon and HMS Catterick, were converted for use as aircraft direction frigates in the early 1950s. These conversions involved the addition of modern air warning and aircraft control equipment, notably the Type 277 height-finder radar and Type 293 target indicator, as well as additional communications fit.[5] Modifications to improve sea keeping and crew comfort included the enclosure of open bridge structures and the upgrading of accommodation and ventilation systems. Ships retained in reserve or placed on extended service often had non-essential wartime fittings stripped to simplify maintenance.

Ships by Type

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Type I

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General characteristics Type I
Displacement
  • 1,000 long tons (1,020 t) standard
  • 1,340 long tons (1,360 t) full load
Length85 m (278 ft 10 in) o/a
Beam8.8 m (28 ft 10 in)
Draught3.27 m (10 ft 9 in)
Propulsion
Speed
  • 27.5 knots (31.6 mph; 50.9 km/h)
  • 26 kn (29.9 mph; 48.2 km/h) full
Range
  • 3,500 nmi (6,500 km) at 15 kn (28 km/h)
  • 1,000 nmi (1,850 km) at 26 kn (48 km/h)
Complement146
Armament

The first ten of the following were ordered on 21 March 1939, and the other ten on 11 April 1939. Three more were ordered on 4 September 1939 (see below) were intended to be of Type II, but were actually completed to the Type I design.

  • Atherstone
    • Builder: Cammell Laird, Birkenhead
    • Laid down: 8 June 1939
    • Launched: 12 December 1939
    • Completed: 23 March 1940
    • Fate: Paid off October 1945 and broken up 25 November 1957.
  • Berkeley
  • Cattistock
    • Builder: Yarrow, Scotstoun
    • Laid down: 9 June 1939
    • Launched: 22 February 1940
    • Completed: 22 July 1940
    • Fate: paid off 26 March 1946, and broken up 2 July 1957
  • Cleveland
    • Builder: Yarrow, Scotstoun
    • Laid down: 7 July 1939
    • Launched: 24 April 1940
    • Completed: 18 September 1940
    • Fate: Paid off September 1945; sold to be broken up 1957, but wrecked en route to the scrapyard.
  • Eglinton
    • Builder: Vickers-Armstrong, Tyne
    • Laid down: 8 June 1939
    • Launched: 28 December 1939
    • Completed: 28 August 1940
    • Fate: Paid off 1945 and broken up 28 May 1956.
  • Exmoor
    • Builder: Vickers-Armstrong, Tyne
    • Laid down: 8 June 1939
    • Launched: 25 January 1940
    • Completed: 1 November 1940
    • Fate: Sunk by E-boat S-30, off Lowestoft, 25 February 1941.
  • Fernie
    • Builder: John Brown & Company, Clydebank
    • Laid down: 8 June 1939
    • Launched: 9 January 1940
    • Completed: 29 May 1940
    • Fate: Aircraft target ship August 1945 to 1947. Paid off 1947, and broken up 7 November 1956.
  • Garth
    • Builder: John Brown & Company, Clydebank
    • Laid down: 8 June 1939
    • Launched: 14 February 1940
    • Completed: 1 July 1940
    • Fate: Paid off December 1945 and broken up 15 August 1958.
  • Hambledon
    • Builder: Swan Hunter, Wallsend
    • Laid down: 8 June 1939
    • Launched: 12 December 1939
    • Completed: 8 June 1940
    • Fate: Paid off December 1945 and broken up 4 February 1958.
  • Holderness
    • Builder: Swan Hunter, Wallsend
    • Laid down: 29 June 1939
    • Launched: 8 February 1940
    • Completed: 10 August 1940
    • Fate: Paid off 20 May 1946 and broken up 20 November 1956.
  • Cotswold
    • Builder: Yarrow, Scotstoun
    • Laid down: 11 October 1939
    • Launched: 18 July 1940
    • Completed: 16 November 1940
    • Fate: Paid off 29 June 1946 and broken up 11 September 1957.
  • Cottesmore
    • Builder: Yarrow Shipbuilders, Scotstoun
    • Laid down: 12 December 1939
    • Launched: 5 September 1940
    • Completed: 29 December 1940
    • Fate: Paid off 28 February 1946. Sold to Egypt in 1950 as Ibrahim el Awal, renamed Mohamed Ali el Kebir in 1951, scrapped.
Ibrahim al-Awal, formerly Mendip, captured by Israel from Egypt in 1956
  • Mendip
    • Builder: Swan Hunter, Wallsend
    • Laid down: 10 August 1939
    • Launched: 9 April 1940
    • Completed: 12 October 1940
    • Fate: Paid off 20 May 1946. Sold to Nationalist China 1947 and renamed Lin Fu. Seized prior to delivery and re-sold 1949 to Egypt as Mohamed Ali el Kebir, renamed Ibrahim el Awal in 1951, captured by Israel on 31 October 1956 and commissioned as INS Haifa (K-38), decommissioned 1968, used as training target and sunk by a Gabriel missile.
  • Meynell
    • Builder: Swan Hunter, Wallsend
    • Laid down: 10 August 1939
    • Launched: 7 June 1940
    • Completed: 30 December 1940
    • Fate: Aircraft target ship 11 September 1945 to December 1946, when paid off. Sold to Ecuador 1954 and renamed Presidente Velasco Ibarra. 05/05/1978: Stricken and broken up.
  • Pytchley
    • Builder: Scotts, Greenock
    • Laid down: 26 July 1939
    • Launched: 13 February 1940
    • Completed: 23 October 1940
    • Fate: Paid off August 1946 and broken up 1 December 1956.
  • Quantock
    • Builder: Scotts, Greenock
    • Laid down: 26 July 1939
    • Launched: 22 April 1940
    • Completed: 6 February 1941
    • Fate: Paid off December 1945. Sold to Ecuador 1954 and renamed Presidente Alfaro.
  • Quorn
    • Builder: J. Samuel White, Cowes
    • Laid down: 26 July 1939
    • Launched: 27 March 1940
    • Completed: 21 September 1940
    • Fate: Sunk by a human torpedo off the Normandy beaches during the D-Day invasion, 2 August 1944.
  • Southdown
    • Builder: J. Samuel White, Cowes
    • Laid down: 22 August 1939
    • Launched: 5 July 1940
    • Completed: 8 November 1940
    • Fate: Aircraft target ship 8 September 1945 to 1946. Paid off 22 May 1946, and broken up 1 November 1956.
  • Tynedale
    • Builder: Stephens, Linthouse
    • Laid down: 27 July 1939
    • Launched: 5 June 1940
    • Completed: 2 December 1940
    • Fate: Sunk by the German submarine U-593 on 12 December 1943.
  • Whaddon
    • Builder: Stephens, Linthouse
    • Laid down: 27 July 1939
    • Launched: 16 July 1940
    • Completed: 28 February 1941
    • Fate: Paid off October 1945 and broken up 5 April 1959.

Type II

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General characteristics Type II
Displacement
  • 1,050 long tons (1,070 t) standard
  • 1,430 long tons (1,450 t) full load
Length85.3 m (279 ft 10 in) o/a
Beam9.6 m (31 ft 6 in)
Draught2.51 m (8 ft 3 in)
Propulsion
Speed
  • 27 knots (31 mph; 50 km/h)
  • 25.5 kn (29.3 mph; 47.2 km/h) full
Range3,600 nmi (6,700 km) at 14 kn (26 km/h)
Complement164
Armament

Eighteen were ordered on 4 September 1939 and two more (Lauderdale and Ledbury) on the following day. Three of these were completed with the same armament as the Type I – Blencathra, Brocklesby and Liddesdale. A final batch of sixteen were ordered on 20 December 1939.

ORP Krakowiak (L115)

Type III

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General characteristics Type III
Displacement
  • 1,050 long tons (1,070 t) standard
  • 1,435 long tons (1,458 t) full load
Length85.3 m (279 ft 10 in) o/a
Beam10.16 m (33 ft 4 in)
Draught3.51 m (11 ft 6 in)
Propulsion
Speed
  • 27 knots (31 mph; 50 km/h)
  • 25.5 kn (29.3 mph; 47.2 km/h) full
Range2,350 nmi (4,350 km) at 20 kn (37 km/h)
Complement168
Armament
Notescost £352,000[9]
  • Airedale
    • Builder: Builder: John Brown & Company, Clydebank
    • Laid down: 27 November 1939
    • Launched: 17 July 1940
    • Completed: 9 December 1940
    • Fate: Lost 30 June 1942 after aerial attack
  • Albrighton
    • Builder: Builder: John Brown & Company, Clydebank
    • Laid down: 8 January 1940
    • Launched: 17 August 1940
    • Completed: 4 January 1941
    • Fate: Transferred to Federal German Navy in 1959 as Raule, scrapped in Hamburg in 1969
  • Aldenham
    • Builder: Cammell Laird, Birkenhead
    • Laid down: 7 March 1941
    • Launched: 20 November 1941
    • Completed: 29 March 1942
    • Fate: Mined and lost 12 December 1944
  • Belvoir
    • Builder: Cammell Laird, Birkenhead
    • Laid down: 2 April 1941
    • Launched: 18 December 1941
    • Completed: 5 May 1942
    • Fate: Scrapped at Borrowstounness ("Bo'ness") October 1957
  • Blean
    • Builder: Hawthorn Leslie, Hebburn
    • Laid down: 24 May 1941
    • Launched: 28 January 1942
    • Completed: 26 May 1942
    • Fate: Lost 30 December 1942, torpedoed by U-443
  • Bleasdale
  • Bolebroke
    • Builder: Swan Hunter, Wallsend
    • Laid down: 16 December 1941
    • Launched: 28 September 1942
    • Completed: 9 March 1943
    • Fate: Transferred to Greece as Pindos scrapped in 1960
  • Border
    • Builder: Swan Hunter, Wallsend
    • Laid down: 9 January 1942
    • Launched: 1 October 1942
    • Completed: 19 March 1943
    • Fate: Transferred to Greece as Adrias. Written off after mine damage October 1943
  • Catterick
    • Builder: Vickers-Armstrongs, Barrow-in-Furness
    • Laid down: 15 September 1942
    • Launched: 21 May 1943
    • Completed: 26 July 1943
    • Fate: Bought by Greece in 1946 as Hastings, scrapped at Piraeus June 1963
  • Derwent
    • Builder: Vickers-Armstrongs, Barrow-in-Furness
    • Laid down: 5 October 1942
    • Launched: 19 June 1943
    • Completed: 3 August 1943
    • Fate: Torpedoed by aircraft and written off March 1943
  • Easton
    • Builder: J. Samuel White, Cowes
    • Laid down: 15 March 1940
    • Launched: 14 June 1941
    • Completed: 3 September 1941
    • Fate: Scrapped at Rosyth in January 1953
  • Eggesford
    • Builder: J. Samuel White, Cowes
    • Laid down: 1 May 1940
    • Launched: 21 February 1941
    • Completed: 15 June 1941
    • Fate: Sold to Federal German Navy in 1959 as Brommy, scrapped in 1969
Eskdale - Hunt Class Destroyer Loaned To the Norwegian Navy

Type IV

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General characteristics Type IV
Displacement
  • 1,175 long tons (1,194 t) standard
  • 1,561 long tons (1,586 t) full load
Length90.22 m (296 ft 0 in) o/a
Beam9.6 m (31 ft 6 in)
Draught3.51 m (11 ft 6 in)
Propulsion
Speed
  • 26 knots (30 mph; 48 km/h)
  • 25.5 kn (29.3 mph; 47.2 km/h) full
Range
  • 950 nmi (1,760 km) at 25 kn (46 km/h) (Brecon)
  • 1,175 nmi (2,176 km) at 25 kn (46 km/h) (Brissinden)
Complement170
Armament

These very distinct vessels were built to a radically different private design by Thornycroft at Southampton, ordered on 28 July 1940.

  • Brecon
    • Laid down: 27 February 1941
    • Launched: 27 June 1942
    • Completed: 18 December 1942
    • Fate: Paid off 4 December 1945 and broken up on 17 September 1962 at Faslane.
  • Brissenden
    • Laid down: 28 February 1941
    • Launched: 15 September 1942
    • Completed: 12 February 1943
    • Fate: Paid off 19 June 1948 and broken up on 3 March 1965 at Dalmuir.

Notes

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  1. ^ a b c d e f Chesneau, Roger, ed. (1980). Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships 1922–1946. Conway Maritime Press. pp. 42–45. ISBN 0-85177-146-7.
  2. ^ a b Brown, David K. Nelson to Vanguard: Warship Design and Development, 1923–1945. Chatham Publishing, 2000.
  3. ^ a b Colledge, J. J.; Warlow, Ben. Ships of the Royal Navy: The Complete Record of All Fighting Ships of the Royal Navy. Chatham Publishing, 2006.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i Friedman, Norman. British Destroyers & Frigates: The Second World War and After. Seaforth Publishing, 2006.
  5. ^ a b c Critchley, Mike (1982). British Warships Since 1945: Part 3, Destroyers. Maritime Books. pp. 20–22. ISBN 0-9506323-9-2.
  6. ^ Friedman, Norman (2006). British Destroyers and Frigates: The Second World War and After. Seaforth Publishing. pp. 70–72. ISBN 978-1-84832-015-4.
  7. ^ Friedman, Norman. British Destroyers and Frigates: The Second World War and After. Seaforth Publishing, 2006, pp. 88–89. ISBN 978-1-84832-015-4.
  8. ^ Winser, John de D. B.E.F. Ships Before, At and After Dunkirk. World Ship Society, 1999, pp. 104–106. ISBN 0-905617-91-6.
  9. ^ Brown, DK Nelson to Vanguard p107

Bibliography

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