自我提升
自我提升（英語：Self-enhancement）或称自我膨胀、自我拉抬是人的一种动机，有些人通过它使自己自我感觉良好和保持自尊[1]，在受到威胁、遭遇失败和自尊心被打击时相对多见[2][3][4]。自我提升时，人们倾向于接受正面的自我概念[5]。自我提升使得人们改变控制自身行为的自律过程。它是四种自我评估动机之一，其他三种为自我评定（寻求准确自我概念的动机）、自我验证（寻求与自我感觉一致的自我概念的动机）和自我改善（改良自我概念的行为）。
人们可以使用很多策略提升自己的个人价值感知，比如忽视自己不擅长的方面、通过比较并批评他人让自己感觉更好。通过这些策略，人们趋向认为自己比别人优点更多，缺点更少[6]。自我提升的人群中既有高自尊心者也有低自尊心者，但各自使用的策略不同。高自尊心者会通过偏差地处理信息，直接提升自我概念；低自尊者通过更间接的策略，如避免暴露缺点的情况出现[7]。
自我提升是否对个体有利的问题是有争议的。
结果
[编辑]自我提升策略的影响显示在人们将自己视为比别人的优点更多，前途更光明[6]。
自我提升三元素
[编辑]人们通常对自己有着不切实际的个人价值感知，这些自我满足的看法可以被归为三类，称之为正面错觉三元素[8]，他们是：超过平均效应[9]、控制错觉[10]和不切实际的乐观[11]。很多情境下，这三种错觉都会出现，而且很难校正。讽刺的是，当被告知这些错觉的存在时，人们普遍认为自己比别人出现得更少[12]。
超过平均效应
[编辑]优于常人效应是超过平均效应的最常见证明。此效应十分顽固，即使条件与其他被评价个体完全相同时，人们仍然会对自己作出更高的评价。[9]人们也会对与自己相关的事物给予更高的优越感，人们认为自己的亲密朋友[13][14]和个人财产[15]高于其他人。然而当成果被认为是需要精湛技巧的，人们通常会谨慎而表现出劣于常人效应。例如，多数人会把自己骑独轮车能力评为低于常人。
多数人超过平均在很多下是不可能的，比如在对称分布情况下，此时 平均数 = 中位数 = 众数 。[16]或者非对称分布的情况下，此时平均数 < 中位数 < 众数 或 众数 < 中位数 < 平均数。然而在非对称分布的情况下，如果把平均数或者众数看作平均值，多数人超过平均则是可能的。
人们在很多方面上的自我提升的原因是超过平均效应。人们通常倾向于在有正面、合意的结果的事物中显示出高于平均，在负面、不合意的事物中低于平均。
超过平均效应现象包括：
- 多数大学生认为自己的礼仪、运动技能和领导力是前50%卓越的。[17][18][19]
- 语法和逻辑领域的12%优秀者也会认为自己的水平是前62%。[20]
- 94%的大学教授认为自己的教学能力高于平均水平。[21]
- 英国和美国的大学生认为自己的驾驶能力高于平均水平驾驶员。[22]即使是因造成车祸住院的驾驶员，也认为自己不比普通驾驶员差。[23]
- 即使在被告知优于常人效应后，人们也认为自己受此偏差之影响少于他人。[24]
控制错觉
[编辑]人们会高估自己控制结果和偶然的能力[25] ，实际无关时认为自己的行为是有影响的[26]。人们也相信他们可以影响本身随机的系统，如彩票，尤其是对于与技巧相关的任务。尽管偶然性一定程度上存在于行为和结果中，但它被人们高估了[26]。
不切实际的乐观
[编辑]人们通常相信自己将经历的好事比同类人多，坏事比同龄人少。[11][27][28]人们对于像恋人、好朋友一样的同伴也会有不切实际的乐观，但是程度小些。[29]
不切实际的乐观明显出现在人们多种情境下的行为和看法中。人们会高估自己预测未来的能力[30]以及低估自己完成任务的所需时间[31]。人们高估自己社会预测的准确度[32]，并将个人正面结果解读为价值更高，负面结果解读为价值更低[33]。令人担心的是，吸烟者会低估自己相对于不吸烟的癌症风险，甚至会与同类吸烟者比较[34]。
对个体的利弊
[编辑]自我提升是否有利于个体的适应度是存在争议的。[35][36]多种动机可以影响自我提升的出现，因此既有好处，又有坏处。[37]对自己表现评估出错的人（同时包括自我提升者和自我低估者）易于获得较低的学习成绩，其他表现也更差。各种文化中，似乎都会出现此种现象。[38]
两种定义中使用哪种是有争议的。有的研究者人为前一种不算自我提升。[43]
一些研究显示，自我提升与心理水平良好有强烈关系[44]，另一些研究恰恰相反，说与心理水平糟糕有关[41]。 自我提升也有社会代价。对九一一恐怖袭击幸存者的治疗中发现，自我提升者的朋友和家人把他们的社会适应度和诚实评为降低。[45]
反推之為何有倖存者與恐怖襲擊？人類，一種米養百種人，一頁一頁寫成歷史成了忠字。
参考资料
[编辑]参考
[编辑]- ^ Sedikides, C.; Strube, M. J., The Multiply Motivated Self, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 1995, 21 (12): 1330–1335, ISSN 0146-1672, doi:10.1177/01461672952112010,
The self-enhancement motive refers to people's desire to enhance the positivity or decrease the negativity of the self-concept.
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- ^ Sedikides, Constantine; Gregg, Aiden P., Self-Enhancement: Food for Thought, Perspectives on Psychological Science, 2008, 3 (2): 102–116, ISSN 1745-6916, doi:10.1111/j.1745-6916.2008.00068.x.
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- ^ Paulhus, Delroy L.; Aliye Kurt, Moderators of the adaptiveness of self-enhancement: Operationalization, motivational domain, adjustment facet, and evaluator☆, Journal of Research in Personality, August 2008, 42 (4): 839–853 [12 December 2011], doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2007.11.005, （原始内容存档于2015-09-24）.
- ^ Taylor, S. E., Lerner, J. S., Sherman, D. K., Sage, R. M., & McDowell, N. K.; Lerner, JS; Sherman, DK; Sage, RM; McDowell, NK, Portrait of the self-enhancer: Well adjusted and well liked or maladjusted and friendless?, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 2003, 84 (1): 165–176, PMID 12518977, doi:10.1037/0022-3514.84.1.165
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来源
[编辑]- Baumeister, Roy F., The Self in Social Psychology, Psychology Press, 1999, ISBN 978-0-86377-572-7
- Hogg, Michael A.; Vaughan, Graham M., Social Psychology, Pearson Education, 2008, ISBN 978-0-13-206931-1
- Kunda, Ziva, Social Cognition: Making Sense of People, MIT Press, 1999, ISBN 978-0-262-61143-5, OCLC 40618974
延伸阅读
[编辑]- Edward Chin-Ho Chang: Self-Criticism and Self-Enhancement. American Psychological Association, 2008 ISBN 978-1-4338-0115-0
- Hogg, Michael A.; Cooper, Joel, The Sage Handbook of Social Psychology, Sage, 2003, ISBN 978-0-7619-6636-4
- Mark R Leary & June Price Tangney: Handbook of Self and Identity. Guilford Press, 2005 ISBN 978-1-59385-237-5
外部链接
[编辑]- Sedikides vs. Heine debate (videos)
- Constantine Sedikides' （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） Home Page;
- Home Page of Steven Heine （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
- University of Southampton's Centre for Research on Self and Identity （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） Home Page
- International Society for Self and Identity.
