Dyslexia

From Wikipedia the free encyclopedia

Dyslexia
Other namesReading disorder, alexia
Difficulties in processing letters and words
SpecialtyNeurology, pediatrics
SymptomsTrouble reading[1]
Usual onsetSchool age[2]
TypesSurface dyslexia
CausesGenetic and environmental factors[2]
Risk factorsFamily history, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder[3]
Diagnostic methodSeries memory, spelling, vision, and reading test[4]
Differential diagnosisHearing or vision problems, insufficient teaching[2]
TreatmentAdjusting teaching methods[1]
Frequency3–7%[2][5]

Dyslexia, previously known as word blindness, is a learning disability that affects either reading or writing.[1][6] Different people are affected to different degrees.[3] Problems may include difficulties in spelling words, reading quickly, writing words, "sounding out" words in the head, pronouncing words when reading aloud and understanding what one reads.[3][7] Often these difficulties are first noticed at school.[2] The difficulties are involuntary, and people with this disorder have a normal desire to learn.[3] People with dyslexia have higher rates of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), developmental language disorders, and difficulties with numbers.[2][8]

Dyslexia is believed to be caused by the interaction of genetic and environmental factors.[2] Some cases run in families.[3] Dyslexia that develops due to a traumatic brain injury, stroke, or dementia is sometimes called "acquired dyslexia"[1] or alexia.[3] The underlying mechanisms of dyslexia result from differences within the brain's language processing.[3] Dyslexia is diagnosed through a series of tests of memory, vision, spelling, and reading skills.[4] Dyslexia is separate from reading difficulties caused by hearing or vision problems or by insufficient teaching or opportunity to learn.[2]

Treatment involves adjusting teaching methods to meet the person's needs.[1] While not curing the underlying problem, it may decrease the degree or impact of symptoms.[9] Treatments targeting vision are not effective.[10] Dyslexia is the most common learning disability and occurs in all areas of the world.[11] It affects 3–7% of the population;[2][5] however, up to 20% of the general population may have some degree of symptoms.[12] While dyslexia is more often diagnosed in boys, this is partly explained by a self-fulfilling referral bias among teachers and professionals.[2][13] It has even been suggested that the condition affects men and women equally.[11] Some believe that dyslexia is best considered as a different way of learning, with both benefits and downsides.[14][15]

Classification

Main article: Pure alexia

Dyslexia is divided into developmental and acquired forms.[16] Acquired dyslexia occurs subsequent to neurological insult, such as traumatic brain injury or stroke. People with acquired dyslexia exhibit some of the signs or symptoms of the developmental disorder, but require different assessment strategies and treatment approaches.[17] Pure alexia, also known as agnosic alexia or pure word blindness, is one form of alexia which makes up "the peripheral dyslexia" group.[18]

Signs and symptoms

See also: Characteristics of dyslexia

In early childhood, symptoms that correlate with a later diagnosis of dyslexia include delayed onset of speech and a lack of phonological awareness.[10] A common myth closely associates dyslexia with mirror writing and reading letters or words backwards.[19] These behaviors are seen in many children as they learn to read and write, and are not considered to be defining characteristics of dyslexia.[10]

School-age children with dyslexia may exhibit signs of difficulty in identifying or generating rhyming words, or counting the number of syllables in words—both of which depend on phonological awareness.[20] They may also show difficulty in segmenting words into individual sounds (such as sounding out the three sounds of k, a, and t in cat) or may struggle to blend sounds, indicating reduced phonemic awareness.[21]

Difficulties with word retrieval or naming things is also associated with dyslexia.[22]: 647  People with dyslexia are commonly poor spellers, a feature sometimes called dysorthographia or dysgraphia, which depends on the skill of orthographic coding.[10]

Problems persist into adolescence and adulthood and may include difficulties with summarizing stories, memorization, reading aloud, or learning foreign languages. Adults with dyslexia can often read with good comprehension, though they tend to read more slowly than others without a learning difficulty and perform worse in spelling tests or when reading nonsense words—a measure of phonological awareness.[23]

Associated conditions

Dyslexia often co-occurs with other learning disorders, but the reasons for this comorbidity have not been clearly identified.[24] These associated disabilities include:

Dysgraphia
A disorder involving difficulties with writing or typing, sometimes due to problems with eye–hand coordination; it also can impede direction- or sequence-oriented processes, such as tying knots or carrying out repetitive tasks.[25] In dyslexia, dysgraphia is often multifactorial, due to impaired letter-writing automaticity, organizational and elaborative difficulties, and impaired visual word forming, which makes it more difficult to retrieve the visual picture of words required for spelling.[25]
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
A disorder characterized by problems sustaining attention, hyperactivity, or acting impulsively.[26] Dyslexia and ADHD commonly occur together.[5][27][28] Approximately 15%[10] or 12–24% of people with dyslexia have ADHD;[29] and up to 35% of people with ADHD have dyslexia.[10]
Auditory processing disorder
A listening disorder that affects the ability to process auditory information.[30][31] This can lead to problems with auditory memory and auditory sequencing. Many people with dyslexia have auditory processing problems, and may develop their own logographic cues to compensate for this type of deficit. Some research suggests that auditory processing skills could be the primary shortfall in dyslexia.[32][33]
Developmental coordination disorder
A neurological condition characterized by difficulty in carrying out routine tasks involving balance, fine-motor control and kinesthetic coordination; difficulty in the use of speech sounds; and problems with short-term memory and organization.[34]

Causes

Inferior parietal lobule – superior view animation

Researchers have been trying to find the neurobiological basis of dyslexia since the condition was first identified in 1881.[35][36] For example, some have tried to associate the common problem among people with dyslexia of not being able to see letters clearly to abnormal development of their visual nerve cells.[37]

Neuroanatomy

Neuroimaging techniques, such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and positron emission tomography (PET), have shown a correlation between both functional and structural differences in the brains of children with reading difficulties.[38] Some people with dyslexia show less activation in parts of the left hemisphere of the brain involved with reading, such as the inferior frontal gyrus, inferior parietal lobule, and the middle and ventral temporal cortex.[32] Over the past decade, brain activation studies using PET to study language have produced a breakthrough in the understanding of the neural basis of language. Neural bases for the visual lexicon and for auditory verbal short-term memory components have been proposed,[39] with some implication that the observed neural manifestation of developmental dyslexia is task-specific (i.e., functional rather than structural). fMRIs of people with dyslexia indicate an interactive role of the cerebellum and cerebral cortex as well as other brain structures in reading.[40][41]

The cerebellar theory of dyslexia proposes that impairment of cerebellum-controlled muscle movement affects the formation of words by the tongue and facial muscles, resulting in the fluency problems that some people with dyslexia experience. The cerebellum is also involved in the automatization of some tasks, such as reading.[42] The fact that some children with dyslexia have motor task and balance impairments could be consistent with a cerebellar role in their reading difficulties. However, the cerebellar theory has not been supported by controlled research studies.[43]

Genetics

Research into potential genetic causes of dyslexia has its roots in post-autopsy examination of the brains of people with dyslexia.[37] Observed anatomical differences in the language centers of such brains include microscopic cortical malformations known as ectopias, and more rarely, vascular micro-malformations, and microgyrus—a smaller than usual size for the gyrus.[44] The previously cited studies and others[45] suggest that abnormal cortical development, presumed to occur before or during the sixth month of fetal brain development, may have caused the abnormalities. Abnormal cell formations in people with dyslexia have also been reported in non-language cerebral and subcortical brain structures.[46] Several genes have been associated with dyslexia, including DCDC2[47] and KIAA0319[48] on chromosome 6, and DYX1C1 on chromosome 15.[49]

Gene–environment interaction

The contribution of gene–environment interaction to reading disability has been intensely studied using twin studies, which estimate the proportion of variance associated with a person's environment and the proportion associated with their genes. Both environmental and genetic factors appear to contribute to reading development. Studies examining the influence of environmental factors such as parental education[50] and teaching quality[51] have determined that genetics have greater influence in supportive, rather than less optimal, environments.[52] However, more optimal conditions may just allow those genetic risk factors to account for more of the variance in outcome because the environmental risk factors have been minimized.[52]

As environment plays a large role in learning and memory, it is likely that epigenetic modifications play an important role in reading ability. Measures of gene expression, histone modifications, and methylation in the human periphery are used to study epigenetic processes; however, all of these have limitations in the extrapolation of results for application to the human brain.[53][54]

Language

The orthographic complexity of a language directly affects how difficult it is to learn to read it.[55]: 266  English and French have comparatively "deep" phonemic orthographies within the Latin alphabet writing system, with complex structures employing spelling patterns on several levels: letter-sound correspondence, syllables, and morphemes.[56]: 421  Languages such as Spanish, Italian and Finnish primarily employ letter-sound correspondence—so-called "shallow" orthographies—which makes them easier to learn for people with dyslexia.[55]: 266  Logographic writing systems, such as Chinese characters, have extensive symbol use; and these also pose problems for dyslexic learners.[57]

Pathophysiology

Corpus callosum view, front part at top of image

For most people who are right-hand dominant, the left hemisphere of their brain is more specialized for language processing. With regard to the mechanism of dyslexia, fMRI studies suggest that this specialization is less pronounced or absent in people with dyslexia. In other studies, dyslexia is correlated with anatomical differences in the corpus callosum, the bundle of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres.[58]

Data via diffusion tensor MRI indicate changes in connectivity or in gray matter density in areas related to reading and language. Finally, the left inferior frontal gyrus has shown differences in phonological processing in people with dyslexia.[58] Neurophysiological and imaging procedures are being used to ascertain phenotypic characteristics in people with dyslexia, thus identifying the effects of dyslexia-related genes.[59]

Dual route theory

The dual-route theory of reading aloud was first described in the early 1970s.[60] This theory suggests that two separate mental mechanisms, or cognitive routes, are involved in reading aloud.[61] One mechanism is the lexical route, which is the process whereby skilled readers can recognize known words by sight alone, through a "dictionary" lookup procedure.[62] The other mechanism is the nonlexical or sublexical route, which is the process whereby the reader can "sound out" a written word.[62][63] This is done by identifying the word's constituent parts (letters, phonemes, graphemes) and applying knowledge of how these parts are associated with each other, for example, how a string of neighboring letters sound together.[60] The dual-route system could explain the different rates of dyslexia occurrence between different languages (e.g., the consistency of phonological rules in the Spanish language could account for the fact that Spanish-speaking children show a higher level of performance in non-word reading, when compared to English-speakers).[55][64]

Diagnosis

Dyslexia is a heterogeneous, dimensional learning disorder that impairs accurate and fluent word reading and spelling.[65][66] Typical—but not universal—features include difficulties with phonological awareness; inefficient and often inaccurate processing of sounds in oral language (phonological processing); and verbal working memory deficits.[67][68]

Dyslexia is a neurodevelopmental disorder, subcategorized in diagnostic guides as a learning disorder with impairment in reading (ICD-11 prefixes "developmental" to "learning disorder"; DSM-5 uses "specific").[69][70][71] Dyslexia is not a problem with intelligence. Emotional problems often arise secondary to learning difficulties.[72] The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke describes dyslexia as "difficulty with phonological processing (the manipulation of sounds), spelling, and/or rapid visual-verbal responding".[1]

The British Dyslexia Association defines dyslexia as "a learning difficulty that primarily affects the skills involved in accurate and fluent word reading and spelling" and is characterized by "difficulties in phonological awareness, verbal memory and verbal processing speed".[73] Phonological awareness enables one to identify, discriminate, remember (working memory), and mentally manipulate the sound structures of language—phonemes, onsite-rime segments, syllables, and words.[74][75]

Assessment

The following can be done to assess for dyslexia:

Apply a multidisciplinary team approach involving the child's parent(s) and teacher(s), school psychologist, pediatrician, and, as appropriate, speech and language pathologist (speech therapist), and occupational therapist.[76]

Gain familiarity with typical ages children reach various general developmental milestones, and domain-specific milestones, such as phonological awareness (recognizing rhyming words; identifying the initial sounds in words).[77]

Do not rely on tests exclusively. Careful observation of the child in the school and home environments, and sensitive, comprehensive parental interviews are just as important as tests.[78][79]

Look at the empirically supported response to intervention (RTI) approach,[80] which "... involves monitoring the progress of a group of children through a programme of intervention rather than undertaking a static assessment of their current skills. Children with the most need are those who fail to respond to effective teaching, and they are readily identified using this approach."[81]

Assessment tests

There is a wide range of tests that are used in clinical and educational settings to evaluate the possibility of dyslexia.[82] If initial testing suggests that a person might have dyslexia, such tests are often followed up with a full diagnostic assessment to determine the extent and nature of the disorder.[83] Some tests can be administered by a teacher or computer; others require specialized training and are given by psychologists.[84] Some test results indicate how to carry out teaching strategies.[84][85] Because a variety of different cognitive, behavioral, emotional, and environmental factors all could contribute to difficulty learning to read, a comprehensive evaluation should consider these different possibilities. These tests and observations can include:[86]

  • General measures of cognitive ability, such as the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities, or Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales. Low general cognitive ability would make reading more difficult. Cognitive ability measures also often try to measure different cognitive processes, such as verbal ability, nonverbal and spatial reasoning, working memory, and processing speed. There are different versions of these tests for different age groups. Almost all of these require additional training to give and score correctly, and are done by psychologists. According to Mather and Schneider (2015), a confirmatory profile and/or pattern of scores on cognitive tests confirming or ruling-out reading disorder has not yet been identified.[87]
  • Screening or evaluation for mental health conditions: Parents and teachers can complete rating scales or behavior checklists to gather information about emotional and behavioral functioning for younger people. Many checklists have similar versions for parents, teachers, and younger people old enough to read reasonably well (often 11 years and older) to complete. Examples include the Behavioral Assessment System for Children, and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. All of these have nationally representative norms, making it possible to compare the level of symptoms to what would be typical for the younger person's age and biological sex. Other checklists link more specifically to psychiatric diagnoses, such as the Vanderbilt ADHD Rating Scales or the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED). Screening uses brief tools that are designed to catch cases with a disorder, but they often get false positive scores for people who do not have the disorder. Screeners should be followed up by a more accurate test or diagnostic interview as a result. Depressive disorders and anxiety disorders are two-three times higher in people with dyslexia, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder is more common, as well.[88][89][90][91]
  • Review of academic achievement and skills: Average spelling/reading ability for a dyslexic is a percentage ranking <16, well below normal. In addition to reviewing grades and teacher notes, standardized test results are helpful in evaluating progress. These include group administered tests, such as the Iowa Tests of Educational Development, that a teacher may give to a group or whole classroom of younger people at the same time. They also could include individually administered tests of achievement, such as the Wide Range Achievement Test, or the Woodcock-Johnson (which also includes a set of achievement tests). The individually administered tests again require more specialized training.[92][93][94]

Screening

Screening procedures seek to identify children who show signs of possible dyslexia. In the preschool years, a family history of dyslexia, particularly in biological parents and siblings, predicts an eventual dyslexia diagnosis better than any test.[95] In primary school (ages 5–7), the ideal screening procedure consists of training primary school teachers to carefully observe and record their pupils' progress through the phonics curriculum, and thereby identify children progressing slowly.[96][97] When teachers identify such students they can supplement their observations with screening tests such as the Phonics screening check[98] used by United Kingdom schools during Year one.

In the medical setting, child and adolescent psychiatrist M. S. Thambirajah emphasizes that "[g]iven the high prevalence of developmental disorders in school-aged children, all children seen in clinics should be systematically screened for developmental disorders irrespective of the presenting problem/s." Thambirajah recommends screening for developmental disorders, including dyslexia, by conducting a brief developmental history, a preliminary psychosocial developmental examination, and obtaining a school report regarding academic and social functioning.[99]

Management

Main article: Management of dyslexia

Through the use of compensation strategies, therapy and educational support, individuals with dyslexia can learn to read and write.[100] There are techniques and technical aids that help to manage or conceal symptoms of the disorder.[101] Reducing stress and anxiety can sometimes improve written comprehension.[102] For dyslexia intervention with alphabet-writing systems, the fundamental aim is to increase a child's awareness of correspondences between graphemes (letters) and phonemes (sounds), and to relate these to reading and spelling by teaching how sounds blend into words. Reinforced collateral training focused on reading and spelling may yield longer-lasting gains than oral phonological training alone.[103] Early intervention can be successful in reducing reading failure.[104]

Research does not suggest that specially-tailored fonts (such as Dyslexie and OpenDyslexic) help with reading.[105] Children with dyslexia read text set in a regular font such as Times New Roman and Arial just as quickly, and they show a preference for regular fonts over specially-tailored fonts.[105] Some research has pointed to increased letter-spacing being beneficial.[105]

There is currently no evidence showing that music education significantly improves the reading skills of adolescents with dyslexia.[106]

Prognosis

Dyslexic children require special instruction for word analysis and spelling from an early age.[107] The prognosis, generally speaking, is positive for individuals who are identified in childhood and receive support from friends and family.[1] The New York educational system (NYED) indicates "a daily uninterrupted 90-minute block of instruction in reading" and "instruction in phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary development, reading fluency" so as to improve the individual's reading ability.[108]

Epidemiology

The prevalence of dyslexia is unknown, but it has been estimated to be as low as 5% and as high as 17% of the population.[109] Dyslexia is diagnosed more often in males.[2]

There are different definitions of dyslexia used throughout the world. Further, differences in writing systems may affect development of written language ability due to the interplay between auditory and written representations of phonemes.[110] Dyslexia is not limited to difficulty in converting letters to sounds, and Chinese people with dyslexia may have difficulty converting Chinese characters into their meanings.[111][112] The Chinese vocabulary uses logographic, monographic, non-alphabet writing where one character can represent an individual phoneme.[113]

The phonological-processing hypothesis attempts to explain why dyslexia occurs in a wide variety of languages. Furthermore, the relationship between phonological capacity and reading appears to be influenced by orthography.[114]

History

Main article: History of dyslexia research

Dyslexia was clinically described by Oswald Berkhan in 1881,[35] but the term dyslexia was coined in 1883 by Rudolf Berlin, an ophthalmologist in Stuttgart.[115][116][117] He used the term to refer to the case of a young boy who had severe difficulty learning to read and write, despite showing typical intelligence and physical abilities in all other respects.[118] In 1896, W. Pringle Morgan, a British physician from Seaford, East Sussex, published a description of a reading-specific learning disorder in a report to the British Medical Journal titled "Congenital Word Blindness".[119] The distinction between phonological versus surface types of dyslexia is only descriptive, and without any etiological assumption as to the underlying brain mechanisms. However, studies have alluded to potential differences due to variation in performance.[120] Over time, we have changed from the intelligence-based model to the age-based model, in terms of those with Dyslexia.[121][85]

Society and culture

See also: List of artistic depictions of dyslexia

As is the case with any disorder, society often makes an assessment based on incomplete information. Before the 1980s, dyslexia was thought to be a consequence of education, rather than a neurological disability. As a result, society often misjudges those with the disorder.[102] There is also sometimes a workplace stigma and negative attitude towards those with dyslexia.[122] If the instructors of a person with dyslexia lack the necessary training to support a child with the condition, there is often a negative effect on the student's learning participation.[123]

Since at least the 1960s in the UK, the children diagnosed with developmental dyslexia have consistently been from privileged families.[124] Although half of prisoners in the UK have significant reading difficulties, very few have ever been evaluated for dyslexia.[124] Access to some special educational resources and funding is contingent upon having a diagnosis of dyslexia.[124] As a result, when Staffordshire and Warwickshire proposed in 2018 to teach reading to all children with reading difficulties, using techniques proven to be successful for most children with a diagnosis of dyslexia, without first requiring the families to obtain an official diagnosis, dyslexia advocates and parents of children with dyslexia were fearful that they were losing a privileged status.[124]

Stigma and success

See also: List of people with dyslexia

Due to the various cognitive processes that dyslexia affects and the overwhelming societal stigma around the disability, individuals with dyslexia often employ behaviors of self-stigma and perfectionistic self-presentation in order to cope with their disability.[125] The perfectionist self-presentation is when an individual attempts to present themselves as the perfect ideal image and hides any imperfections.[125] This behavior presents serious risk as it often results in mental health issues and refusal to seek help for their disability.[125]

Research

Further information: Dyslexia research
Writing systems

Most dyslexia research relates to alphabetic writing systems, and especially to European languages.[126] However, substantial research is also available regarding people with dyslexia who speak Arabic, Chinese, Hebrew, or other languages.[127] The outward expression of individuals with reading disability, and regular poor readers, is the same in some respects.[128]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g "Dyslexia Information Page". National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. 2 November 2018.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Peterson RL, Pennington BF (May 2012). "Developmental dyslexia". Lancet. 379 (9830): 1997–2007. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60198-6. PMC 3465717. PMID 22513218.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g "What are reading disorders?". National Institutes of Health. 1 December 2016.
  4. ^ a b "How are reading disorders diagnosed?". National Institutes of Health. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 15 March 2015.
  5. ^ a b c Kooij JJ (2013). Adult ADHD diagnostic assessment and treatment (3rd ed.). London: Springer. p. 83. ISBN 9781447141389. Archived from the original on 30 April 2016.
  6. ^ Siegel LS (November 2006). "Perspectives on dyslexia". Paediatrics & Child Health. 11 (9): 581–7. doi:10.1093/pch/11.9.581. ISSN 1205-7088. PMC 2528651. PMID 19030329.
  7. ^ "What are the symptoms of reading disorders?". National Institutes of Health. 1 December 2016.
  8. ^ Sexton CC, Gelhorn HL, Bell JA, Classi PM (November 2012). "The Co-occurrence of Reading Disorder and ADHD: Epidemiology, Treatment, Psychosocial Impact, and Economic Burden". Journal of Learning Disabilities. 45 (6): 538–564. doi:10.1177/0022219411407772. PMID 21757683. S2CID 385238.
  9. ^ "What are common treatments for reading disorders?". National Institutes of Health. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 15 March 2015.
  10. ^ a b c d e f Handler SM, Fierson WM, Section on O, Council on Children with D, American Academy of O, American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and S, American Association of Certified O (March 2011). "Learning disabilities, dyslexia, and vision". Pediatrics. 127 (3): e818–56. doi:10.1542/peds.2010-3670. PMID 21357342. S2CID 11454203.
  11. ^ a b Umphred, Darcy Ann, Lazaro, Rolando T., Roller, Margaret, Burton, Gordon (2013). Neurological Rehabilitation. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 383. ISBN 978-0-323-26649-9. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017.
  12. ^ "How many people are affected by/at risk for reading disorders?". National Institutes of Health. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 15 March 2015.
  13. ^ Arnett AB, Pennington BF, Peterson RL, Willcutt EG, Defries JC, Olson RK (2017). "Explaining the sex difference in dyslexia". Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 58 (6): 719–727. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12691. PMC 5438271. PMID 28176347.
  14. ^ Venton D (September 2011). "The Unappreciated Benefits of Dyslexia". Wired. Archived from the original on 5 August 2016. Retrieved 10 August 2016.
  15. ^ Mathew S (August 2014). "The Advantages of Dyslexia". ScientificAmerican.com. Scientific American. Archived from the original on 4 August 2016. Retrieved 10 August 2016.
  16. ^ Oxford English Dictionary. 3rd ed. "dyslexia, n. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2012 ("a learning disability specifically affecting the attainment of literacy, with difficulty esp. in word recognition, spelling, and the conversion of letters to sounds, occurring in a child with otherwise normal development, and now usually regarded as a neurodevelopmental disorder with a genetic component.")
  17. ^ Woollams AM (19 January 2014). "Connectionist neuropsychology: uncovering ultimate causes of acquired dyslexia". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 369 (1634): 20120398. doi:10.1098/rstb.2012.0398. ISSN 0962-8436. PMC 3866427. PMID 24324241.
  18. ^ Coslett HB (2000). "Acquired dyslexia". Semin Neurol. 20 (4): 419–26. doi:10.1055/s-2000-13174. PMID 11149697. S2CID 36969285.
  19. ^ Lilienfeld SO, Lynn SJ, Ruscio J, Beyerstein BL (15 September 2011). 50 Great Myths of Popular Psychology: Shattering Widespread Misconceptions about Human Behavior. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 88–89. ISBN 978-1-4443-6074-5. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017. Retrieved 19 May 2016.
  20. ^ "Dyslexia and Related Disorders" (PDF). Alabama Dyslexia Association. International Dyslexia Association. January 2003. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 29 April 2015.
  21. ^ Peer L, Reid G (2014). Multilingualism, Literacy and Dyslexia. Routledge. p. 219. ISBN 978-1-136-60899-5. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017.
  22. ^ Shaywitz, Sally E., Shaywitz, Bennett A. (2013). "Chapter 34 Making a Hidden Disability Visible: What Has Been Learned from Neurobiological Studies of Dyslexia". In Swanson, H. Lee, Harris, Karen R., Graham, Steve (eds.). Handbook of Learning Disabilities (2 ed.). Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1-4625-0856-3. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017.
  23. ^ Jarrad L (October 2013). "Procedural learning is impaired in dyslexia: evidence from a meta-analysis of serial reaction time studies". Research in Developmental Disabilities. 34 (10): 3460–76. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2013.07.017. PMC 3784964. PMID 23920029.
  24. ^ Nicolson RI, Fawcett AJ (September 2009). "Dyslexia, dysgraphia, procedural learning and the cerebellum". Cortex. 47 (1): 117–27. doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2009.08.016. PMID 19818437. S2CID 32228208.
  25. ^ a b Reynolds CR, Fletcher-Janzen E (2 January 2007). Encyclopedia of Special Education. John Wiley & Sons. p. 771. ISBN 978-0-471-67798-7.
  26. ^ "Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder". NIH: National Institute of Mental Health. March 2016. Archived from the original on 23 July 2016. Retrieved 26 July 2016.
  27. ^ Comer, Ronald (2011). Psychology Around Us. RR Donnelley. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-471-38519-6. Archived from the original on 4 June 2016.
  28. ^ Germanò E, Gagliano A, Curatolo P (2010). "Comorbidity of ADHD and Dyslexia" (PDF). Developmental Neuropsychology. 35 (5): 475–493. doi:10.1080/87565641.2010.494748. PMID 20721770. S2CID 42046958. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 August 2011.
  29. ^ Fatemi, S. Hossein, Sartorius, Norman, Clayton, Paula J. (2008). The Medical Basis of Psychiatry (3rd ed.). Springer Science & Business Media. p. 308. ISBN 978-1-59745-252-6. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017.
  30. ^ Capellini, Simone Aparecida (2007). Neuropsycholinguistic Perspectives on Dyslexia and Other Learning Disabilities. Nova Publishers. p. 94. ISBN 978-1-60021-537-7. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017.
  31. ^ Moore DR (July 2011). "The diagnosis and management of auditory processing disorder". Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools. 42 (3): 303–8. doi:10.1044/0161-1461(2011/10-0032). PMID 21757566.
  32. ^ a b Pammer K (January 2014). "Brain mechanisms and reading remediation: more questions than answers". Scientifica. 2014: 802741. doi:10.1155/2014/802741. PMC 3913493. PMID 24527259.
  33. ^ Law J (2014). "relationship of phonological ability, speech perception, and auditory perception in adults with dyslexia". Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 8: 482. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00482. PMC 4078926. PMID 25071512.
  34. ^ Susan J. Pickering (2012). "Chapter 2. Working Memory in Dyslexia". In Alloway, Tracy Packiam, Gathercole, Susan E. (eds.). Working Memory and Neurodevelopmental Disorders. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-1-135-42134-2. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017.
  35. ^ a b Berkhan O (1917). "Über die Wortblindheit, ein Stammeln im Sprechen und Schreiben, ein Fehl im Lesen" [About word blindness, adyslalia of speech and writing, a weakness in reading]. Neurologisches Centralblatt (in German). 36: 914–27.
  36. ^ Reid, Gavin, Fawcett, Angela, Manis, Frank, Siegel, Linda (2008). The SAGE Handbook of Dyslexia. SAGE Publications. p. 127. ISBN 978-1-84860-037-9. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017.
  37. ^ a b Stein J (2014). "Dyslexia: the Role of Vision and Visual Attention". Current Developmental Disorders Reports. 1 (4): 267–80. doi:10.1007/s40474-014-0030-6. PMC 4203994. PMID 25346883.
  38. ^ Whitaker, Harry A. (2010). Concise Encyclopedia of Brain and Language. Elsevier. p. 180. ISBN 978-0-08-096499-7. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017.
  39. ^ Price c (16 August 2012). "A Review and Synthesis of the first 20 years of Pet and fMRI studies of heard Speech, Spoken Language and Reading". NeuroImage. 62 (2): 816–847. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.04.062. PMC 3398395. PMID 22584224.
  40. ^ Sharifi S (May 2014). "Neuroimaging essentials in essential tremor: a systematic review". NeuroImage: Clinical. 5: 217–231. doi:10.1016/j.nicl.2014.05.003. PMC 4110352. PMID 25068111.
  41. ^ Brandler W (February 2014). "The genetic relationship between handedness and neurodevelopmental disorders". Trends in Molecular Medicine. 20 (2): 83–90. doi:10.1016/j.molmed.2013.10.008. PMC 3969300. PMID 24275328.
  42. ^ Cain K (2010). Reading development and difficulties (1st ed.). TJ International. p. 134. ISBN 9781405151559. Retrieved 21 March 2015.
  43. ^ Levav I (2009). Psychiatric and Behavioral Disorders in Israel: From Epidemiology to Mental health. Green Publishing. p. 52. ISBN 9789652294685. Retrieved 21 March 2015.
  44. ^ Faust, Miriam (2012). The Handbook of the Neuropsychology of Language. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 941–43. ISBN 978-1-4443-3040-3. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017.
  45. ^ Benitez A (November 2010). "Neurobiology and neurogenetics of dyslexia". Neurology (In Spanish). 25 (9): 563–81. doi:10.1016/j.nrl.2009.12.010. PMID 21093706.
  46. ^ Kere J (September 2014). "The molecular genetics and neurobiology of developmental dyslexia as model of a complex phenotype". Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 452 (2): 236–43. doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2014.07.102. PMID 25078623.
  47. ^ Marshall, Chloë R. (2012). Current Issues in Developmental Disorders. Psychology Press. pp. 53–56. ISBN 978-1-136-23067-7. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017.
  48. ^ Paracchini S, Thomas A, Castro S, Lai C, Paramasivam M, Wang Y, Keating BJ, Taylor JM, Hacking DF, Scerri T, Francks C, Richardson AJ, Wade-Martins R, Stein JF, Knight JC, Copp AJ, LoTurco J, Monaco AP (15 May 2006). "The chromosome 6p22 haplotype associated with dyslexia reduces the expression of KIAA0319, a novel gene involved in neuronal migration". Human Molecular Genetics. 15 (10): 1659–1666. doi:10.1093/hmg/ddl089. hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-0012-C979-F. PMID 16600991.
  49. ^ Rosen, Glenn D. (2013). The Dyslexic Brain: New Pathways in Neuroscience Discovery. Psychology Press. p. 342. ISBN 978-1-134-81550-0. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017.
  50. ^ Friend A, Defries JC, Olson RK (November 2008). "Parental Education Moderates Genetic Influences on Reading Disability". Psychol. Sci. 19 (11): 1124–30. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02213.x. PMC 2605635. PMID 19076484.
  51. ^ Taylor J, Roehrig AD, Hensler BS, Connor CM, Schatschneider C (2010). "Teacher Quality Moderates the Genetic Effects on Early Reading". Science. 328 (5977): 512–4. Bibcode:2010Sci...328..512T. doi:10.1126/science.1186149. PMC 2905841. PMID 20413504.
  52. ^ a b Pennington BF, McGrath LM, Rosenberg J, Barnard H, Smith SD, Willcutt EG, Friend A, Defries JC, Olson RK (January 2009). "Gene × Environment Interactions in Reading Disability and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder". Developmental Psychology. 45 (1): 77–89. doi:10.1037/a0014549. PMC 2743891. PMID 19209992.
  53. ^ Roth TL, Roth ED, Sweatt JD (September 2010). "Epigenetic regulation of genes in learning and memory". Essays in Biochemistry. 48 (1): 263–74. doi:10.1042/bse0480263. PMID 20822498. S2CID 23229766.
  54. ^ Smith SD (December 2011). "Approach to epigenetic analysis in language disorders". Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders. 3 (4): 356–364. doi:10.1007/s11689-011-9099-y. ISSN 1866-1947. PMC 3261263. PMID 22113455.
  55. ^ a b c Paulesu, Eraldo; Brunswick, Nicola and Paganelli, Federica (2010). "Cross-cultural differences in unimpaired and dyslexic reading: Behavioral and functional anatomical observations in readers of regular and irregular orthographies. Chapter 12 in Reading and Dyslexia in Different Orthographies Archived 9 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Eds. Nicola Brunswick, Siné McDougall, and Paul de Mornay Davies. Psychology Press. ISBN 9781135167813
  56. ^ Juel, Connie (2013). "The Impact of Early School Experiences on Initial Reading". In David K. Dickinson, Susan B. Neuman (eds.). Handbook of Early Literacy Research. Guilford Publications. ISBN 978-1-4625-1470-0. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017.
  57. ^ Snowling MJ, Hulme C (1 May 2012). "Annual Research Review: The nature and classification of reading disorders – a commentary on proposals for DSM-5". Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines. 53 (5): 593–607. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02495.x. PMC 3492851. PMID 22141434.
  58. ^ a b Habib M (2013). "Dyslexia". Pediatric Neurology Part I. Handbook of Clinical Neurology. Vol. 111. pp. 229–235. doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-52891-9.00023-3. ISBN 9780444528919. PMID 23622168. Retrieved 19 December 2018.
  59. ^ Schumacher J, Hoffmann P, Schmäl C, Schulte-Körne G, Nöthen MM (2007). "Genetics of dyslexia: the evolving landscape". Journal of Medical Genetics. 44 (5): 289–297. doi:10.1136/jmg.2006.046516. PMC 2597981. PMID 17307837.
  60. ^ a b Pritchard SC, Coltheart M, Palethorpe S, Castles A, Coltheart, Palethorpe, Castles (October 2012). "Nonword reading: comparing dual-route cascaded and connectionist dual-process models with human data". J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform. 38 (5): 1268–88. doi:10.1037/a0026703. PMID 22309087.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  61. ^ Eysenck, Michael, Keane, Mark T. (2013). Cognitive Psychology 6e. Psychology Press. p. 373. ISBN 978-1-134-44046-7. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017.
  62. ^ a b Eysenck, Michael, Keane, Mark T. (2013). Cognitive Psychology 6e. Psychology Press. p. 450. ISBN 978-1-134-44046-7. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017.
  63. ^ Hulme C, Joshi RM, Snowling MJ (2012). Reading and Spelling: Development and Disorders. Routledge. p. 151. ISBN 978-1-136-49807-7. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017.
  64. ^ Sprenger-Charolles L (2011). "Prevalence and Reliability of Phonological, Surface, and Mixed Profiles in Dyslexia: A Review of Studies Conducted in Languages Varying in Orthographic Depth". Scientific Studies of Reading. 15 (6): 498–521. doi:10.1080/10888438.2010.524463. S2CID 15227374. Archived from the original on 30 August 2017.
  65. ^ Boada R, Willcutt EG, Pennington BF (2012). "Understanding the Comorbidity Between Dyslexia and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder". Topics in Language Disorders. 32 (3): 270. doi:10.1097/tld.0b013e31826203ac. S2CID 43200465. ... Pennington proposed a multiple deficit model for complex disorders like dyslexia, hypothesizing that such complex disorders are heterogeneous conditions that arise from the additive and interactive effects of multiple genetic and environmental risk factors, which then lead to weaknesses in multiple cognitive domains.
  66. ^ Pennington B (September 2006). "From single to multiple deficit models of developmental disorders". Cognition. 101 (2): 385–413. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2006.04.008. PMID 16844106. S2CID 7433822.
  67. ^ Peterson RL, Pennington BF (28 March 2015). "Developmental Dyslexia". Annual Review of Clinical Psychology. 11 (1): 283–307. doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032814-112842. PMID 25594880. SSRN 2588407.
  68. ^ Snowling, Margaret J. Dyslexia: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2019. ISBN 9780192550422
  69. ^ "6A03.0 Developmental learning disorder with impairment in reading". International Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, 11th rev. (ICD-11) (Mortality and Morbidity Statistics). World Health Organization. Retrieved 7 October 2019.
  70. ^ Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders : DSM-5. DSM-5 Task Force. (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association. 2013. ISBN 9780890425541. OCLC 830807378. Specific Learning Disorder with impairment in reading ... Dyslexia is an alternative term used to refer to a pattern of learning difficulties characterized by problems with accurate or fluent word recognition, poor decoding, and poor spelling abilities.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  71. ^ FragaGonzález G, Karipidis I, Tijms J (19 October 2018). "Dyslexia as a Neurodevelopmental Disorder and What Makes It Different from a Chess Disorder". Brain Sciences. 8 (10): 189. doi:10.3390/brainsci8100189. ISSN 2076-3425. PMC 6209961. PMID 30347764.
  72. ^ Campbell RJ (2009). Campbell's Psychiatric Dictionary. Oxford University Press. pp. 310–312. ISBN 978-0-19-534159-1. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017.
  73. ^ Phillips, Sylvia, Kelly, Kathleen, Symes, Liz (2013). Assessment of Learners with Dyslexic-Type Difficulties. SAGE. p. 7. ISBN 978-1-4462-8704-0. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017.
  74. ^ Stahl SA, Murray BA (1994). "Defining phonological awareness and its relationship to early reading". Journal of Educational Psychology. 86 (2): 221–234. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.86.2.221.
  75. ^ Rvachew S, Ohberg A, Grawburg M, Heyding J (1 November 2003). "Phonological Awareness and Phonemic Perception in 4-Year-Old Children With Delayed Expressive Phonology Skills". American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology. 12 (4): 463–471. doi:10.1044/1058-0360(2003/092). PMID 14658998. S2CID 16983189.
  76. ^ Catherine Christo, John M. Davis, and Stephen E. Brock, Identifying, Assessing, and Treating Dyslexia at School (New York: Springer Science+Business Media, 2009), 59.
  77. ^ Mather, Nancy and Barbara J. Wendling. Essentials of Dyslexia Assessment and Intervention. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2012.
  78. ^ Reid, Gavin and Jennie Guise. The Dyslexia Assessment. London: Bloomsbury, 2017 ("... assessment for dyslexia includes more than tests; it involves comprehensive insights into the student's learning. This requires a full and comprehensive individual assessment as well as consideration of the environment and contextual factors.").
  79. ^ M. S. Thambirajah, Developmental Assessment of the School-Aged Child with Developmental Disabilities: A Clinician's Guide (London: Jessica Kingsley, 2011), 74.
  80. ^ Jimerson, Shane R., Matthew K. Burns, and Amanda M. VanDerHeyden. Handbook of Response to Intervention: The Science and Practice of Multi-Tiered Systems of Support. 2nd ed. New York: Springer Science+Business Media, 2016.
  81. ^ Snowling Margaret J (2013). "Early Identification and Interventions for Dyslexia: A Contemporary View". Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs. 13 (1): 7–14. doi:10.1111/j.1471-3802.2012.01262.x. PMC 4538781. PMID 26290655.
  82. ^ "Tests for Dyslexia and Learning Disabilities". University of Michigan. Archived from the original on 13 March 2015. Retrieved 15 March 2015.
  83. ^ Peer, Lindsay, Reid, Gavin (2013). Introduction to Dyslexia. Taylor & Francis. pp. 35–40. ISBN 978-1-135-37290-3. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017.
  84. ^ a b "Screening and assessment". British Dyslexia Association. Archived from the original on 30 March 2015. Retrieved 11 March 2015.
  85. ^ a b FLETCHER JM (2009). "Dyslexia: The evolution of a scientific concept". Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society. 15 (4): 501–508. doi:10.1017/S1355617709090900. ISSN 1355-6177. PMC 3079378. PMID 19573267.
  86. ^ Schulte-Körne G (October 2010). "The Prevention, Diagnosis, and Treatment of Dyslexia". Deutsches Ärzteblatt International. 107 (41): 718–727. doi:10.3238/arztebl.2010.0718. ISSN 1866-0452. PMC 2967798. PMID 21046003.
  87. ^ Mather, N., & Schneider, D. The use of intelligence tests in the diagnosis of specific reading disability.Goldstein S, Princiotta D, Naglieri JA (2014). Handbook of Intelligence: Evolutionary Theory, Historical Perspective, and Current Concepts. Springer. pp. 415–434. ISBN 9781493915620. Retrieved 10 January 2019.
  88. ^ Collett BR, Ohan JL, Myers KM (1 September 2003). "Ten-Year Review of Rating Scales. V: Scales Assessing Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder". Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 42 (9): 1015–1037. doi:10.1097/01.CHI.0000070245.24125.B6. ISSN 0890-8567. PMID 12960702. Retrieved 3 October 2019.
  89. ^ Stone LL, Janssens JM, Vermulst AA, Van Der Maten M, Engels RC, Otten R (20 February 2015). "The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire: psychometric properties of the parent and teacher version in children aged 4–7". BMC Psychology. 3 (1): 4. doi:10.1186/s40359-015-0061-8. ISSN 2050-7283. PMC 4364334. PMID 25815194.
  90. ^ Swart GT (2005). "The Clinician's Guide to the Behavior Assessment System For Children". The Canadian Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Review. 14 (3): 90. ISSN 1716-9119. PMC 2542918.
  91. ^ Birmaher B, Khetarpal S, Brent D, Cully M, Balach L, Kaufman J, Neer SM (1997). "The Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED): scale construction and psychometric characteristics". Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 36 (4): 545–553. doi:10.1097/00004583-199704000-00018. ISSN 0890-8567. PMID 9100430.
  92. ^ Lindquist EF (1953). The Iowa tests of educational development: how to use the test results; a manual for teachers and counselors. Science Research Associates. Retrieved 3 October 2019.
  93. ^ Dell CA, Harrold B, Dell T (1 October 2008). "Test Review: Wilkinson, G. S., & Robertson, G. J. (2006). Wide Range Achievement Test—Fourth Edition. Lutz, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources. WRAT4 Introductory Kit (includes manual, 25 test/response forms [blue and green], and accompanying test materials): $243.00". Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin. 52 (1): 57–60. doi:10.1177/0034355208320076. ISSN 0034-3552. S2CID 145644409.
  94. ^ Semrud-Clikeman M, Ellison PA (2009). Child Neuropsychology: Assessment and Interventions for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, 2nd Edition. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 119. ISBN 9780387889634. Retrieved 3 October 2019.
  95. ^ Catherine Christo, John M. Davis, and Stephen E. Brock, Identifying, Assessing, and Treating Dyslexia at School (New York: Springer Science+Business Media, 2009), 56. ISBN 9780387885995
  96. ^ Margaret J. Snowling, Dyslexia: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2019), 93–94.
  97. ^ Letters and Sounds: Principles and Practice of High Quality Phonics, Ref: DFES-00281-2007 (00281-2007BKT-EN), Primary National Strategy, Department for Education and Skills (United Kingdom), 2007.
  98. ^ "Phonics screening check: 2019 materials". United Kingdom Department for Education, Standards and Testing Agency. Retrieved 14 October 2019.
  99. ^ Thambirajah, M. S. (2011). Developmental assessment of the school-aged child with developmental disabilities : a clinician's guide. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. ISBN 9780857003256. OCLC 747410566.
  100. ^ Bogon J (October 2014). "TVA based assessment of visual attention functions in developmental dyslexia". Frontiers in Psychology. 5: 1172. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01172. PMC 4199262. PMID 25360129.
  101. ^ Brunswick, Nicola (10 April 2012). Supporting Dyslexic Adults in Higher Education and the Workplace. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 115–. ISBN 978-0-470-97479-7. Archived from the original on 31 December 2013. Retrieved 10 April 2012.
  102. ^ a b Schulte-Körne G (October 2010). "The prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of dyslexia". Deutsches Ärzteblatt International. 107 (41): 718–26. doi:10.3238/arztebl.2010.0718. PMC 2967798. PMID 21046003.
  103. ^ Lyytinen, Heikki; Erskine, Jane; Aro, Mikko and Richardson, Ulla (2009). "Reading and reading disorders". In Hoff E (ed.). Blackwell Handbook of Language Development. Blackwell. pp. 454–474. ISBN 978-1-4051-9459-4. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  104. ^ van der Leij A (1 November 2013). "Dyslexia and early intervention: what did we learn from the Dutch Dyslexia Programme?". Dyslexia. 19 (4): 241–255. doi:10.1002/dys.1466. ISSN 1099-0909. PMID 24133037.
  105. ^ a b c Kuster SM, van Weerdenburg M, Gompel M, Bosman AM (April 2018). "Dyslexie font does not benefit reading in children with or without dyslexia". Annals of Dyslexia. 68 (1): 25–42. doi:10.1007/s11881-017-0154-6. ISSN 0736-9387. PMC 5934461. PMID 29204931.
  106. ^ Cogo-Moreira H, Andriolo RB, Yazigi L, Ploubidis GB, Brandão de Ávila CR, Mari JJ (15 August 2012). "Music education for improving reading skills in children and adolescents with dyslexia" (PDF). Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (8): CD009133. doi:10.1002/14651858.cd009133.pub2. PMID 22895983. Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 August 2017.
  107. ^ O'Hare A (2010). "Dyslexia: what do paediatricians need to know?". Paediatrics and Child Health. 20 (7): 338–343. doi:10.1016/j.paed.2010.04.004.
  108. ^ "Response to Intervention Guidance – Minimum Requirements of a Response to Intervention Program (RtI) – Instruction Matched to Student Need: Special Education : P12 : NYSED". p12.nysed.gov. Archived from the original on 8 August 2018. Retrieved 10 January 2019.
  109. ^ Tasman A, Kay J, Lieberman JA, First MB, Riba M (29 January 2015). Psychiatry, 2 Volume Set. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9781118845493. Archived from the original on 6 September 2015.
  110. ^ Protopapas A (2013). "From temporal processing to developmental language disorders: mind the gap". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 369 (1634): 20130090. doi:10.1098/rstb.2013.0090. PMC 3866431. PMID 24324245.
  111. ^ Zhao J (November 2014). "The visual magnocellular-dorsal dysfunction in Chinese children with developmental dyslexia impedes Chinese character recognition". Scientific Reports. 4: 7068. Bibcode:2014NatSR...4E7068Z. doi:10.1038/srep07068. PMC 4238300. PMID 25412386.
  112. ^ Marshall, Chloe (2012). Current Issues in Developmental Disorders. Psychology Press. p. 152. ISBN 978-1-84872-084-8. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017.
  113. ^ Garralda E, Raynaud JP (16 January 2012). Brain, Mind, and Developmental Psychopathology in Childhood. Jason Aronson. ISBN 9780765708663.
  114. ^ Navas AL, Ferraz Éd, Borges JP, Navas AL, Ferraz Éd, Borges JP (2014). "Phonological processing deficits as a universal model for dyslexia: evidence from different orthographies". CoDAS. 26 (6): 509–519. doi:10.1590/2317-1782/20142014135. PMID 25590915.
  115. ^ Berlin, Rudolf. [No title.] Medicinisches Correspondenzblatt des Württembergischen Ärztlichen Landesvereins [Correspondence Sheet of the Württemberg Medical Association] 53 (1883): 209.
  116. ^ Webster's Third New International Dictionary. "History and Etymology for dyslexia", s.v. "dyslexia, noun". Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster, 1961, rev. 2016.
  117. ^ "Über Dyslexie" [About dyslexia]. Archiv für Psychiatrie. 15: 276–278. 1884.
  118. ^ Annual of the Universal Medical Sciences and Analytical Index: A Yearly Report of the Progress of the General Sanitary Sciences Throughout the World. F. A. Davis Company. 1888. p. 39. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017.
  119. ^ Brooks P (2014). Encyclopedia of language development. SAGE. p. 30. ISBN 9781483346434.
  120. ^ Mishra SK (October 2014). "Medial efferent mechanisms in children with auditory processing disorders". Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 8: 860. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00860. PMC 4209830. PMID 25386132.
  121. ^ Al-Shidhani TA, Arora V (2012). "Understanding Dyslexia in Children through Human Development Theories". Sultan Qaboos University Medical Journal. 12 (3): 286–294. doi:10.12816/0003141. ISSN 2075-051X. PMC 3529662. PMID 23269949.
  122. ^ de Berr J (2014). "Factors influencing work participation of adults with developmental dyslexia". BMC Public Health. 14: 77. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-14-77. PMC 3913008. PMID 24460949.
  123. ^ Pino M, Mortari L (1 November 2014). "The Inclusion of Students with Dyslexia in Higher Education: A Systematic Review Using Narrative Synthesis". Dyslexia (Chichester, England). 20 (4): 346–369. doi:10.1002/dys.1484. PMC 4253321. PMID 25293652.
  124. ^ a b c d Kale S (17 September 2020). "The Battle over Dyslexia". The Guardian. Retrieved 28 September 2020.
  125. ^ a b c Stoeber J, Rountree ML (February 2021). "Perfectionism, self-stigma, and coping in students with dyslexia: The central role of perfectionistic self-presentation". Dyslexia (Chichester, England). 27 (1): 62–78. doi:10.1002/dys.1666. ISSN 1099-0909. PMID 32803909. S2CID 221144226.
  126. ^ Reid G (2012). The Routledge Companion to Dyslexia. Routledge. p. 16. ISBN 978-1-136-61710-2. Archived from the original on 9 January 2017.
  127. ^ Richlan F (May 2014). "Functional neuroanatomy of developmental dyslexia; the role of orthographic depth". Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 8: 347. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00347. PMC 4033006. PMID 24904383.
  128. ^ "Reading Difficulty and Disability" (PDF). report.nih.gov. NIH. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 February 2019. Retrieved 10 January 2019.

This article was submitted to WikiJournal of Medicine for external academic peer review in 2018 (reviewer reports). The updated content was reintegrated into the Wikipedia page under a CC-BY-SA-3.0 license (2019). The version of record as reviewed is: Osmin Anis, et al. (15 October 2019). "Dyslexia" (PDF). WikiJournal of Medicine. 6 (1): 5. doi:10.15347/WJM/2019.005. ISSN 2002-4436. Wikidata Q73053061.

Further reading

Listen to this article (32 minutes)
Spoken Wikipedia icon
This audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 2 September 2022 (2022-09-02), and does not reflect subsequent edits.
(Audio help · More spoken articles)
Scholia has a topic profile for Dyslexia.
Library resources about
Dyslexia
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dyslexia&oldid=1254179815"