1871 Atlantic hurricane season
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| 1871 Atlantic hurricane season | |
|---|---|
 Season summary map | |
| Seasonal boundaries | |
| First system formed | June 1, 1871 |
| Last system dissipated | October 13, 1871 |
| Strongest storm | |
| Name | Three |
| • Maximum winds | 115 mph (185 km/h) (1-minute sustained) |
| • Lowest pressure | 952 mbar (hPa; 28.11 inHg) |
| Seasonal statistics | |
| Total storms | 8 |
| Hurricanes | 6 |
| Major hurricanes (Cat. 3+) | 2 |
| Total fatalities | 35+ |
| Total damage | Unknown |
The 1871 Atlantic hurricane season lasted from mid-summer to late-fall. Records show that 1871 featured two tropical storms, four hurricanes and two major hurricanes (Category 3+). However, in the absence of modern satellite and other remote-sensing technologies, only storms that affected populated land areas or encountered ships at sea were recorded, so the actual total could be higher. According to a study in 2004, an undercount bias of zero to six tropical cyclones per year between 1851 and 1885 and zero to four per year between 1886 and 1910 is possible.[1] A later study in 2008 estimated that eight or more storms may have been missed prior to 1878.[2]
Of the known 1871 cyclones, both Hurricane Five and Hurricane Eight were first documented in 1995 by José Fernández-Partagás and Henry Díaz, who also proposed large changes to the known tracks of Hurricane Three and of Hurricane Four.[3] Further analysis, in 2008, extended the duration of both Hurricane Three and Hurricane Seven, by one day each.[4] A reanalysis authored by Michael Chenoweth, published in 2014, found fifteen named storms, twelve of which became hurricanes; four attained major hurricane status. However, these results have yet to be officially accepted into HURDAT.[5]
Timeline
[edit]
Systems
[edit]Tropical Storm One
[edit]| Tropical storm (SSHWS) | |
  | |
| Duration | June 1 – June 5 |
|---|---|
| Peak intensity | 60 mph (95 km/h) (1-min); ≤999 mbar (hPa) |
At 00:00 UTC on June 1, a tropical storm formed about 60 miles (95 km) east-southeast of Key West, Florida. For the next twelve hours, the system moved westward over the Straits of Florida between Cuba and the lower Florida Keys. Entering the southeastern Gulf of Mexico, the cyclone turned to the northwest and strengthened. While located 165 miles (266 km) west-northwest of the Dry Tortugas, it attained peak winds of 60 mph (95 km/h) early on June 2. Afterward, the system gradually turned to the west-northwest and maintained its intensity. As it neared the Texas coast, its course shifted to the northwest. At 07:00 UTC on June 4, the storm made landfall over San Luis Pass, 50 mi (80 km) south-southeast of Houston, at peak intensity. After landfall, the storm curved northward over East Texas, and dissipated over eastern Oklahoma late on June 5.[6] A preliminary reanalysis in 2014 upgraded the cyclone to a Category 1 hurricane at landfall in Texas.[5]
A weather station in Galveston recorded peak winds of 39 mph (63 km/h) and a total of 6 inches (150 mm) of rain during the passage of the storm,[7] of which 3.95 in (100 mm) fell in a fourteen-minute time span on June 4.[8] Another source indicated 15.57 in (395 mm) of rainfall took place, including a twenty-four-hour record of 8.55 in (217 mm) on June 4.[9] Additionally, a barometer in the area sampled a minimum peripheral pressure of 29.51 inHg (999 mb). Storm surge flooded onto and eroded Galveston Island, causing washouts of railroad beds and structures.[3] One vessel, the steamship Alabama, beached at Galveston, while another, the Virginia Dare, grounded on an offshore sandbar there. Four drownings occurred at Galveston. Gale-force winds also affected Port Aransas; very high tides occurred there and at Indianola, flooding low ground at the latter place.[9] Extremely heavy rains associated with this cyclone also caused flooding in New Orleans, which was reportedly "submerged".[10] The New York Times on June 6 reported that floodwaters covered 6 square miles (16 km2), five hundred blocks in all.[3]
Tropical Storm Two
[edit]| Tropical storm (SSHWS) | |
 | |
| Duration | June 8 – June 10 |
|---|---|
| Peak intensity | 60 mph (95 km/h) (1-min); ≤1007 mbar (hPa) |
At 00:00 UTC on June 8, the second tropical storm of the season developed 155 mi (250 km) north-northwest of Progreso, Yucatán—three days after Tropical Storm One dissipated. Taking a steady course to the northwest, the cyclone closely followed its predecessor, threatening Southeast Texas yet again. Early on June 9, the system peaked at 60 mph (95 km/h) and turned north-northwestward. At 17:00 UTC, the cyclone made landfall near present-day Jamaica Beach, 15 mi (25 km) west-southwest of Galveston, at peak intensity. After landfall, the system headed northward over the western part of Galveston Bay. Late on June 10, the cyclone dissipated over East Texas, just south of the Texas–Oklahoma border.[6]
As it affected Galveston, the storm destroyed a church and many houses. Storm surge occurred on the island for the second time in a week, as floodwaters engulfed the eastern section of Galveston Island. Several ships wrecked as well, and some sailing ships were deemed lost at sea. A cotton steamship, the Mollie Hambleton, sank while at anchor. One person died at Refugio, when winds unroofed a church. Storm surge-related flooding was minimal at Indianola.[9] Strong gales affected coastal Louisiana, and neared hurricane intensity at Lake Charles, downing fruit trees. Torrential rain damaged corn and cotton crops, and numerous cattle drowned. A tornado struck Chatawa, Mississippi, destroying a schoolhouse and trees.[10]
A reanalysis in 2014 tentatively determined that this storm and the preceding system were a single hurricane.[5]
Hurricane Three
[edit]| Category 3 hurricane (SSHWS) | |
 | |
| Duration | August 14 – August 23 |
|---|---|
| Peak intensity | 115 mph (185 km/h) (1-min); 952 mbar (hPa) |
Early on August 14, the ship Tybee reported hurricane-force winds to the east of The Bahamas, signaling the presence of a well-formed system. At 00:00 UTC on August 14, the third tropical cyclone of the season was noted, 210 mi (340 km) northeast of San Salvador Island, with 90-mph (150-km/h) winds. Tracking generally westward, the hurricane gradually strengthened. At 12:00 UTC on August 15, the cyclone attained peak winds of 115 mph (185 km/h)—equivalent to Category 3 status on the modern Saffir–Simpson scale, which it maintained until landfall in Florida. Several hours later, the hurricane crossed the northern Abaco Islands and continued westward toward the Gulf Stream. Early on August 16, a barque, the Bridgeport, measured a pressure of 28.10 inHg (952 mb) in the storm's eye.[3] As it neared eastern Florida, the storm curved slightly west-northwestward, before making landfall north of Hobe Sound at 02:00 UTC on August 17.[6] Over the next few days, the cyclone parabolically turned to the northeast, re-entering the Atlantic near Darien, Georgia, on August 18. While executing a clockwise loop off the Southeastern United States, the system maintained winds just below hurricane intensity. On August 22, the system ended its loop and headed westward, toward the Georgia coast. Final landfall occurred near Brunswick at 00:00 UTC on August 23. At the time, the cyclone still contained winds of 70 mph (110 km/h). The system decayed as it moved inland, and dissipation took place 18 hours later.[6]
Despite crossing the Bahamas at peak strength, damage in the archipelago, if any, is unknown. The hurricane was of great extent as it struck Florida, with hurricane-force winds occurring at New Smyrna—115 mi (185 km) from the eye. The local U.S. Army Signal Corps observer judged the storm to be the worst since October 23, 1865. In New Smyrna, the storm snapped or otherwise damaged oak and citrus trees. At Enterprise, several homes were unroofed as well. Winds destroyed another home at Ocala.[11] Cotton, oranges, and sugar cane crops in Hillsborough County experienced their largest losses since the 1848 hurricane.[12] Numerous ships were tossed ashore,[13] leaving the beaches "strewn with wrecks".[11] Gale-force winds in Jacksonville uprooted many trees, topped a few brick walls, damaged tin roofs, and downed telegraph wires, cutting off communications. Abnormally high tides inundated parts of the city, although water remained "about a foot [0.3 m] below the market floor." Damage in Jacksonville reached several thousands of dollars.[14] Impacts to Georgia, if any, are unknown. Winds reached 60 mph (97 km/h) in Savannah, which registered a pressure of 29.55 inHg (1,001 mb).[11] In South Carolina, Charleston reportedly experienced its heaviest rain storm since 1854, with 8.53 in (217 mm) of precipitation falling in a 36-hour period, more than 2 in (51 mm) above the total amount of rainfall observed between May 1 and August 1. However, little flooding occurred except on a few streets. One man drowned after attempting to step from a wharf to his sloop during the height of the storm.[15] A telegram from North Carolina described the rainfall as being generally beneficial to crops in the vicinity of Wilmington and reported that the brig Alice Lee was beached at Frying Pan Shoals.[16]
Hurricane Four
[edit]| Category 3 hurricane (SSHWS) | |
 | |
| Duration | August 17 – August 30 |
|---|---|
| Peak intensity | 115 mph (185 km/h) (1-min); 962 mbar (hPa) |
On August 17, the fourth tropical storm of the season developed 550 mi (885 km) west-southwest of the Cape Verde islands. The system progressed on a west-northwest track and steadily intensified, becoming a major hurricane at 00:00 UTC on August 21. Bearing peak winds of 115 mph (185 km/h), the hurricane passed over Antigua, Sint Eustatius, Saint Kitts, and Saint Thomas. Continuing northwestward, it passed 30 mi (50 km) northeast of Fajardo, Puerto Rico.[17] The hurricane then weakened to a Category 2 hurricane, maintaining this strength while making further landfalls in the Bahamas. At 05:00 UTC on August 25, the storm struck near present-day Vero Beach, Florida, with winds of 105 mph (165 km/h).[18] After crossing Central Florida, it entered the Gulf of Mexico and made a final landfall on Taylor County, Florida, as a tropical storm. The storm then moved north and east over land, weakening into a tropical depression, before strengthening back into a tropical storm after re-emerging into the Atlantic off South Carolina. At 12:00 UTC on August 30, the cyclone reattained winds of 70 mph (110 km/h). The storm was last sighted 90 mi (145 km) east of Cape Cod.[6] Chenoweth's study reassessed the hurricane as a Category 4 over the Leeward Islands, with a pressure of 947 mb (28.0 inHg), and shifted the landfall in Florida farther south, close to the present-day Broward–Palm Beach county line.[5]
At least 30 deaths occurred on Antigua and the storm was considered the worst to impact the island since 1835.[19]: 4 Le Moniteur de la Martinique reported two fatalities and considerable damage on Saint Kitts. As the storm passed near Saba, resident Catholic priest Father Koch observed a barometric pressure of 998 mbar (29.5 inHg) and the destruction of many thatch houses.[19]: 5 Some newspapers noted that "not a house was left standing on the whole island" and that the storm killed or injured about 150 people,[20] although the death toll is officially listed as 27.[21] Additionally, numerous shipwrecks occurred, including three ships lost in Puerto Rico, where the storm was dubbed the Santa Juana hurricane.[17] In Florida, storm surge and abnormally high tides damaged a number of boats in the St. Johns River. Winds in the Jacksonville area mainly toppled fences and trees,[12] although a warehouse and church were destroyed. Downed telegraph wires severed communications between Lake City and St. Augustine.[22] The storm demolished several dwellings in Orlando and many others at nearby Fort Reid, along with a gristmill at Fort Mellon. The surrounding countryside was reportedly littered with "one solid fallen mass" of timber "for miles and miles". Several other localities reported crop damage, including Alachua County, Marianna, and Marion County; a report from Gainesville deemed the storm the worst locally in many years, noting that the "most comely shade trees" in town were downed, along with much timber elsewhere. Some homes were blown off their foundations near Ocala, and fencing was "almost universally destroyed".[12]
Hurricane Five
[edit]| Category 2 hurricane (SSHWS) | |
 | |
| Duration | August 30 – September 2 |
|---|---|
| Peak intensity | 105 mph (165 km/h) (1-min); |
The only storm of the year not to make landfall, this system was first observed as a Category 2 hurricane with winds of 105 mph (165 km/h) north of Puerto Rico on August 30. Hurricane Five maintained this intensity until it was last observed south of Nova Scotia.[6] Chenoweth's renanalysis shows genesis three days earlier, with the storm attaining hurricane status a day sooner. The storm also is depicted as a major hurricane at its peak, with winds of 120 mph (195 km/h), based on a measured barometric pressure of 941 mb (27.8 inHg). Chenoweth also indicates that the system made landfall on Nova Scotia as a minimal hurricane on September 3.[5]
Hurricane Six
[edit]| Category 1 hurricane (SSHWS) | |
 | |
| Duration | September 5 – September 8 |
|---|---|
| Peak intensity | 80 mph (130 km/h) (1-min); 982 mbar (hPa) |
The schooner Robert Myhan encountered a hurricane with winds of 80 mph (130 km/h) on September 5,[23] likely located near geographic center of the Gulf of Mexico. At 14:00 UTC the next day, it made landfall near Cedar Key, Florida, as a minimal hurricane,[6] with an estimated barometric pressure of 982 mbar (29.0 inHg).[4] Quickly weakening to a tropical storm, the system emerged moved northeastward across Florida and emerged into the Atlantic early on September 7. Later that day, the storm curved east-northeastward and was last noted late on September 8 offshore North Carolina.[6] Heavy rainfall occurred in Florida and Georgia. Additionally, the brig Martha suffered significant damage about 70 mi (115 km) east of Tybee Island, Georgia.[24]
Chenoweth's study also begins the track of this storm over the Gulf of Mexico and eventually shows it striking Florida. However, the storm instead originates just offshore Tampa and makes landfall near Port St. Joe. The cyclone also crosses through Georgia before emerging into the Atlantic, while the system dissipated east of the state on September 9.[5]
Hurricane Seven
[edit]| Category 1 hurricane (SSHWS) | |
 | |
| Duration | September 30 – October 7 |
|---|---|
| Peak intensity | 80 mph (130 km/h) (1-min); |
A tropical storm was first sighted in the Bay of Campeche on September 30. It continued moving in a northeast direction, paralleling the Texas coast and strengthening to a Category 1 hurricane while doing so. Early on October 4, the hurricane passed south of the Mississippi River Delta. At 16:00 UTC on October 5, it finally made landfall on Taylor County, Florida, as a strong tropical storm with winds of 70 mph (110 km/h). After re-entering the Atlantic Ocean, the storm was last sighted east of Cape Hatteras.[6] At least three people were killed at Galveston and several ships were wrecked or foundered, some with the loss of all hands.[9]
Hurricane Eight
[edit]| Category 1 hurricane (SSHWS) | |
 | |
| Duration | October 10 – October 13 |
|---|---|
| Peak intensity | 80 mph (130 km/h) (1-min); |
A hurricane was first observed northeast of the British Virgin Islands on the morning of October 10. At this point it was already a Category 1 hurricane with winds of 80 mph (130 km/h). Its intensity remained steady at that level as it traveled first west, then veered north before travelling parallel to the US coast. The hurricane dissipated shortly after making landfall at Nova Scotia on October 13.[6]
In Nova Scotia, strong winds produced by the storm reportedly downed all telegraph wires between Bedford and Halifax.[25] The railroad tracks linking the two cities also suffered damage, totaling approximately $16,000. Shipping and wharves at the latter and in Sydney experienced significant impacts, while 30 vessels ran aground at the Dartmouth harbor. Abnormally high tides flooded the basements of oceanfront homes in Halifax. Three people drowned near Devils Island while attempting to set fish nets. Damage throughout Atlantic Canada reached roughly $200,000.[26]
Chenoweth's study indicates formation occurred five days earlier, over the tropical Atlantic. The storm is also estimated to have peaked with winds of 140 mph (220 km/h) on October 10, equivalent to a Category 4 hurricane, based on a pressure of 930 mb (27 inHg). The system then neared the Canadian Maritimes with winds approaching 100 mph (155 km/h) and made landfall as a low-end hurricane.[5]
Other storms
[edit]Chenoweth proposed eight other storms not currently listed in HURDAT:[5]
- August 16 - August 19, peaked as a tropical storm
- August 24 - September 1, peaked as a Category 1 hurricane
- August 30 - September 10, peaked as a Category 1 hurricane
- September 5 - September 14, peaked as a Category 1 hurricane
- September 16 - September 18, peaked as a tropical storm
- September 23 - October 1, peaked as a Category 1 hurricane
- October 2 - October 5, peaked as a tropical storm
- October 15 - October 20, peaked as a Category 1 hurricane
Seasonal effects
[edit]This is a table of the storms in 1871 and their landfall(s) in bold, if any. The minimum pressures, in most cases, are based on limited observations and may not have occurred at their peak intensity.
| Saffir–Simpson scale | ||||||
| TD | TS | C1 | C2 | C3 | C4 | C5 |
| Storm name | Dates active | Storm category at peak intensity | Max 1-min wind mph (km/h) | Min. press. (mbar) | Areas affected | Damage (USD) | Deaths | Ref(s) | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| One | June 1–5 | Tropical storm | 60 (95) | 999 | Texas, Louisiana | Unknown | 4 | [9] | ||
| Two | June 8–10 | Tropical storm | 60 (95) | 1007 | Texas, Louisiana | Unknown | 1 | [9] | ||
| Three | August 14–23 | Category 3 hurricane | 115 (185) | 952 | The Bahamas, Florida, Georgia | Unknown | Unknown | |||
| Four | August 17–30 | Category 3 hurricane | 115 (185) | 962 | Leeward Islands, The Bahamas, Florida | Unknown | 27 | [21] | ||
| Five | August 30–September 5 | Category 2 hurricane | 105 (165) | Unknown | Nova Scotia | Unknown | Unknown | |||
| Six | September 5–September 8 | Category 1 hurricane | 80 (130) | Unknown | Florida | Unknown | Unknown | |||
| Seven | September 30–October 7 | Category 1 hurricane | 80 (130) | Unknown | Texas, Florida | Unknown | >3 | [9] | ||
| Eight | October 10–13 | Category 1 hurricane | 80 (130) | Unknown | Nova Scotia | Unknown | Unknown | |||
| Season aggregates | ||||||||||
| 8 systems | June 1–October 13 | 115 (185) | 952 | Unknown | >35 | |||||
See also
[edit]
Notes
[edit]References
[edit]- ^ Landsea, Christopher W. (2004). "The Atlantic hurricane database re-analysis project: Documentation for the 1851–1910 alterations and additions to the HURDAT database". In Murname, Richard J.; Liu, Kam-biu (eds.). Hurricanes and Typhoons: Past, Present and Future. New York City, New York: Columbia University Press. p. 195. ISBN 0-231-12388-4. Retrieved March 16, 2024.
- ^ Vecchi, Gabriel A.; Knutson, Thomas R. (July 2008). "On Estimates of Historical North Atlantic Tropical Cyclone Activity". Journal of Climate. 21 (14). American Meteorological Society: 3588–3591. Bibcode:2008JCli...21.3580V. doi:10.1175/2008JCLI2178.1.
- ^ a b c d Partagás, José Fernández; Díaz, Henry F. (1995). "A Reconstruction of Historical Tropical Cyclone Frequency in the Atlantic from Documentary and other Historical Sources, Part II: 1871–1880". Year 1871 (PDF) (Report). Climate Diagnostics Center, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved March 16, 2024.
- ^ a b Landsea, Christopher W.; Anderson, Craig; Bredemeyer, William; et al. (May 2015). Documentation of Atlantic Tropical Cyclones Changes in HURDAT. Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory (Report). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved March 16, 2024.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Chenoweth, Michael (December 2014). "A New Compilation of North Atlantic Tropical Cyclones, 1851–98". Journal of Climate. 27 (12). American Meteorological Society: 8674–8685. Bibcode:2014JCli...27.8674C. doi:10.1175/JCLI-D-13-00771.1.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j "Atlantic hurricane best track (HURDAT version 2)" (Database). United States National Hurricane Center. April 5, 2023. Retrieved October 28, 2024.
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. - ^ Partagás & Díaz 1995, p. 9
- ^ Paulhaus, J. L. H. (1973). World Meteorological Organization Operational Hydrology Report No. 1: Manual For Estimation of Probable Maximum Precipitation. World Meteorological Organization. p. 178.
- ^ a b c d e f g Roth, David M. (January 17, 2010). Texas Hurricane History (PDF) (Report). National Weather Service Southern Region Headquarters. pp. 19–20. Retrieved March 16, 2024.
- ^ a b Roth, David M. (April 8, 2010). Louisiana Hurricane History (PDF) (Report). National Weather Service Southern Region Headquarters. pp. 20–21. Retrieved March 16, 2024.
- ^ a b c Ho, Francis P. (March 1989). Extreme Hurricanes in The Nineteenth Century (Technical report). Silver Spring, Maryland: National Weather Service. pp. 128–131. Hydro 43. Retrieved March 16, 2024.
- ^ a b c "The Second Storm". The Weekly Floridian. Tallahassee, Florida. September 5, 1871. p. 2. Retrieved December 4, 2023.
- ^ Partagás & Díaz 1995, p. 10
- ^ "The Storm in Florida–Great Damage at Jacksonville". The Charleston News. August 21, 1871. p. 3. Retrieved November 14, 2023 – via Newspapers.com.
- ^ "A Tempest and Torrent". The Charleston News. August 21, 1871. p. 3. Retrieved November 14, 2023 – via Newspapers.com.
- ^ "The Storm at Wilmington". The Charleston News. August 21, 1871. p. 3. Retrieved November 14, 2023 – via Newspapers.com.
- ^ a b Colón, José (1970). Pérez, Orlando (ed.). Notes on the Tropical Cyclones of Puerto Rico, 1508–1970 (Pre-printed) (Report). National Weather Service. p. 26. Retrieved March 16, 2024.
- ^ Landsea, Chris; Anderson, Craig; Bredemeyer, William; et al. (January 2022). Continental United States Hurricanes (Detailed Description). Re-Analysis Project (Report). Miami, Florida: Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, Hurricane Research Division. Retrieved October 28, 2024.
- ^ a b Cyclone tropical n° 4 1871 – Passage sur les Petites Antilles le 21 août: Éléments de compréhension proposés par l'Amicale des Ouragans (PDF) (Report) (in French). Atlas des cyclones des Antilles françaises. Retrieved December 4, 2023.
- ^ "The Hurricane at St. Thomas". The Georgia Weekly Telegraph and Journal & Messenger. Macon, Georgia. September 12, 1871. p. 8. Retrieved December 4, 2023 – via Newspapers.com.
- ^ a b Rappaport, Edward N.; Fernández-Partagás, José (April 22, 1997) [May 28, 1995]. "Appendix 2: Cyclones that may have 25+ deaths". The Deadliest Atlantic Tropical Cyclones, 1492–1996 (Technical report). National Weather Service, National Hurricane Center. NWS NHC 47. Retrieved December 4, 2023.
- ^ "The Gale". The Weekly Floridian. Tallahassee, Florida. August 29, 1871. p. 1. Retrieved December 4, 2023.
- ^ Partagás & Díaz 1995, p. 15
- ^ Sandrik, Al; Landsea, Christopher W. (2003). "Chronological Listing of Tropical Cyclones affecting North Florida and Coastal Georgia 1565–1899". Hurricane Research Division. Archived from the original on December 6, 2006. Retrieved March 16, 2024.
- ^ "The Storm in Nova Scotia". Bangor Daily Whig and Courier. October 16, 1871. p. 3. Retrieved December 2, 2023 – via Newspapers.com.
- ^ "The Hurricane in Nova Scotia". The Times. London, England. November 6, 1871. p. 4. Retrieved December 2, 2023 – via Newspapers.com.
