Marine pollution

From Wikipedia the free encyclopedia

While marine pollution can be obvious, as with the marine debris shown above, it is often the pollutants that cannot be seen that cause most harm.

Marine pollution occurs when substances used or spread by humans, such as industrial, agricultural and residential waste, particles, noise, excess carbon dioxide or invasive organisms enter the ocean and cause harmful effects there. The majority of this waste (80%) comes from land-based activity, although marine transportation significantly contributes as well.[1] It is a combination of chemicals and trash, most of which comes from land sources and is washed or blown into the ocean. This pollution results in damage to the environment, to the health of all organisms, and to economic structures worldwide.[2] Since most inputs come from land, either via the rivers, sewage or the atmosphere, it means that continental shelves are more vulnerable to pollution. Air pollution is also a contributing factor by carrying off iron, carbonic acid, nitrogen, silicon, sulfur, pesticides or dust particles into the ocean.[3] The pollution often comes from nonpoint sources such as agricultural runoff, wind-blown debris, and dust. These nonpoint sources are largely due to runoff that enters the ocean through rivers, but wind-blown debris and dust can also play a role, as these pollutants can settle into waterways and oceans.[4] Pathways of pollution include direct discharge, land runoff, ship pollution, bilge pollution, atmospheric pollution and, potentially, deep sea mining.

The types of marine pollution can be grouped as pollution from marine debris, plastic pollution, including microplastics, ocean acidification, nutrient pollution, toxins and underwater noise. Plastic pollution in the ocean is a type of marine pollution by plastics, ranging in size from large original material such as bottles and bags, down to microplastics formed from the fragmentation of plastic material. Marine debris is mainly discarded human rubbish which floats on, or is suspended in the ocean. Plastic pollution is harmful to marine life.

Another concern is the runoff of nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) from intensive agriculture, and the disposal of untreated or partially treated sewage to rivers and subsequently oceans. These nitrogen and phosphorus nutrients (which are also contained in fertilizers) stimulate phytoplankton and macroalgal growth, which can lead to harmful algal blooms (eutrophication) which can be harmful to humans as well as marine creatures. Excessive algal growth can also smother sensitive coral reefs and lead to loss of biodiversity and coral health. A second major concern is that the degradation of algal blooms can lead to consumption of oxygen in coastal waters, a situation that may worsen with climate change as warming reduces vertical mixing of the water column.[5]

Many potentially toxic chemicals adhere to tiny particles which are then taken up by plankton and benthic animals, most of which are either deposit feeders or filter feeders. In this way, the toxins are concentrated upward within ocean food chains. When pesticides are incorporated into the marine ecosystem, they quickly become absorbed into marine food webs. Once in the food webs, these pesticides can cause mutations, as well as diseases, which can be harmful to humans as well as the entire food web. Toxic metals can also be introduced into marine food webs. These can cause a change to tissue matter, biochemistry, behavior, reproduction, and suppress growth in marine life. Also, many animal feeds have a high fish meal or fish hydrolysate content. In this way, marine toxins can be transferred to land animals, and appear later in meat and dairy products.

Pathways of pollution

[edit]
Part of a series on
Pollution
Air pollution from a factory
Air
Biological
Digital
Electromagnetic
Natural
Noise
Radiation
Soil
Solid waste
Space
Thermal
Visual
War
Water
Topics
Misc
Lists
Categories
See also: Water pollution

There are many ways to categorize and examine the inputs of pollution into marine ecosystems. There are three main types of inputs of pollution into the ocean: direct discharge of waste into the oceans, runoff into the waters due to rain, and pollutants released from the atmosphere.[6]

One common path of entry by contaminants to the sea are rivers. The evaporation of water from oceans exceeds precipitation. The balance is restored by rain over the continents entering rivers and then being returned to the sea. The Hudson River in New York State and the Raritan River in New Jersey, which empty at the northern and southern ends of Staten Island, are a source of mercury contamination of zooplankton (copepods) in the open ocean. The highest concentration in the filter-feeding copepods is not at the mouths of these rivers but 70 miles (110 km) south, nearer Atlantic City, because water flows close to the coast. It takes a few days before toxins are taken up by the plankton.[7]

Pollution is often classed as point source or nonpoint source pollution. Point source pollution occurs when there is a single, identifiable, localized source of the pollution. An example is directly discharging sewage and industrial waste into the ocean. Pollution such as this occurs particularly in developing nations.[citation needed] Nonpoint source pollution occurs when the pollution is from ill-defined and diffuse sources. These can be difficult to regulate. Agricultural runoff and wind blown debris are prime examples.

Direct discharge

[edit]
Acid mine drainage in the Rio Tinto River
See also: Sewerage, Industrial waste, and Environmental impact of mining

Pollutants enter rivers and the sea directly from urban sewerage and industrial waste discharges, sometimes in the form of hazardous and toxic wastes, or in the form of plastics.[citation needed]

In a study published by Science, Jambeck et al. (2015) estimated that the 10 largest emitters of oceanic plastic pollution worldwide are, from the most to the least, China, Indonesia, Philippines, Vietnam, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Egypt, Malaysia, Nigeria, and Bangladesh.[8]

Inland mining for copper, gold, etc., is another source of marine pollution. Most of the pollution is simply soil, which ends up in rivers flowing to the sea. However, some minerals discharged in the course of the mining can cause problems, such as copper, a common industrial pollutant, which can interfere with the life history and development of coral polyps.[9] Mining has a poor environmental track record. For example, according to the United States Environmental Protection Agency, mining has contaminated portions of the headwaters of over 40% of watersheds in the western continental US.[10] Much of this pollution finishes up in the sea.[citation needed]

Land runoff

[edit]
Main article: Surface runoff
See also: Urban runoff, Stormwater, and Nutrient pollution

Surface runoff from farming, as well as urban runoff and runoff from the construction of roads, buildings, ports, channels, and harbours, can carry soil and particles laden with carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and minerals. This nutrient-rich water can cause fleshy algae and phytoplankton to thrive in coastal areas; known as algal blooms, which have the potential to create hypoxic conditions by using all available oxygen. In the coast of southwest Florida, harmful algal blooms have existed for over 100 years.[11] These algal blooms have been a cause of species of fish, turtles, dolphins, and shrimp to die and cause harmful effects on humans who swim in the water.[11]

Polluted runoff from roads and highways can be a significant source of water pollution in coastal areas. About 75% of the toxic chemicals that flow into Puget Sound are carried by stormwater that runs off paved roads and driveways, rooftops, yards and other developed land.[12] In California, there are many rainstorms that runoff into the ocean. These rainstorms occur from October to March, and these runoff waters contain petroleum, heavy metals, pollutants from emissions, etc.[13]

In China, there is a large coastal population that pollutes the ocean through land runoff. This includes sewage discharge and pollution from urbanization and land use. In 2001, more than 66,795 mi2 of the Chinese coastal ocean waters were rated less than Class I of the Sea Water Quality Standard of China.[14] Much of this pollution came from Ag, Cu, Cd, Pb, As, DDT, PCBs, etc., which occurred from contamination through land runoff.[14]

Ship pollution

[edit]
Main article: Environmental impact of shipping
See also: Ballast water discharge and the environment
A cargo ship pumps ballast water over the side

Ships can pollute waterways and oceans in many ways including through their ballast, bilge, and fuel tanks. Oil spills can have devastating effects. In addition to being toxic to marine life, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), found in crude oil, are very difficult to clean up, and last for years in the sediment and marine environment.[15][16] Additionally, bilge pollution can be toxic to the surrounding environment when bilge water is released from a ship's bilge.[17]

Oil spills are one of the most emotive of marine pollution events. However, while a tanker wreck may result in extensive newspaper headlines, much of the oil in the world's seas comes from other smaller sources, such as tankers discharging ballast water from oil tanks used on return ships, leaking pipelines or engine oil disposed of down sewers.[18]

Discharge of cargo residues from bulk carriers can pollute ports, waterways, and oceans. In many instances vessels intentionally discharge illegal wastes despite foreign and domestic regulation prohibiting such actions. An absence of national standards provides an incentive for some cruise liners to dump waste in places where the penalties are inadequate.[19] It has been estimated that container ships lose over 10,000 containers at sea each year (usually during storms).[20] Ships also create noise pollution that disturbs natural wildlife, and water from ballast tanks can spread harmful algae and other invasive species.[21]

Ballast water taken up at sea and released in port is a major source of unwanted exotic marine life. The invasive freshwater zebra mussels, native to the Black, Caspian, and Azov seas, were probably transported to the Great Lakes via ballast water from a transoceanic vessel.[22] Meinesz believes that one of the worst cases of a single invasive species causing harm to an ecosystem can be attributed to a seemingly harmless jellyfish. Mnemiopsis leidyi, a species of comb jellyfish that spread so it now inhabits estuaries in many parts of the world, was first introduced in 1982, and thought to have been transported to the Black Sea in a ship's ballast water. The population of the jellyfish grew exponentially and, by 1988, it was wreaking havoc upon the local fishing industry. "The anchovy catch fell from 204,000 tons in 1984 to 200 tons in 1993; sprat from 24,600 tons in 1984 to 12,000 tons in 1993; horse mackerel from 4,000 tons in 1984 to zero in 1993."[21] Now that the jellyfish have exhausted the zooplankton, including fish larvae, their numbers have fallen dramatically, yet they continue to maintain a stranglehold on the ecosystem.

Invasive species can take over once occupied areas, facilitate the spread of new diseases, introduce new genetic material, alter underwater seascapes, and jeopardize the ability of native species to obtain food. Invasive species are responsible for about $138 billion annually in lost revenue and management costs in the US alone.[23]

Atmospheric pollution

[edit]
A graph linking atmospheric dust to various coral deaths across the Caribbean Sea and Florida.[24]

Another pathway of pollution occurs through the atmosphere. The ocean has long been affected by the passage of chemicals from the atmosphere (e.g. nutrient source; pH influence).[25] Wind-blown dust and debris, including plastic bags, are blown seaward from landfills and other areas. Dust from the Sahara moving around the southern periphery of the subtropical ridge moves into the Caribbean and Florida during the warm season as the ridge builds and moves northward through the subtropical Atlantic. Dust can also be attributed to a global transport from the Gobi and Taklamakan deserts across Korea, Japan, and the Northern Pacific to the Hawaiian Islands.[26]

Since 1970, dust outbreaks have worsened due to periods of drought in Africa. There is a large variability in dust transport to the Caribbean and Florida from year to year;[27] however, the flux is greater during positive phases of the North Atlantic Oscillation.[28] The USGS links dust events to a decline in the health of coral reefs across the Caribbean and Florida, primarily since the 1970s.[29]

Climate change is raising ocean temperatures[30] and raising levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. These rising levels of carbon dioxide are acidifying the oceans.[31] This, in turn, is altering aquatic ecosystems and modifying fish distributions,[32] with impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and the livelihoods of the communities that depend on them. Healthy ocean ecosystems are also important for the mitigation of climate change.[33]

Deep sea mining

[edit]
This section is an excerpt from Deep sea mining § Environmental impacts.[edit]
Deep sea mining (like all mining) must consider potential its environmental impacts. Deep sea mining has yet to receive a comprehensive evaluation of such impacts.

Some of the potential toxic metals include copper, zinc, cadmium, lead as well as rare earth elements such as lanthanum and yttrium.[34] Following the release of toxins there is an increase of noise, light, sediment le dan plumes and elements that have the potential to impact the ecosystems.[35]

Deep sea minerals (DSM) can be extremely beneficial, it can cause wealth, raising living standards as well as economic opportunities for both current and future generations.[36] In addition, if the wealth is poorly managed it can have the potential to cause great economic and social damage . The instability of price and production levels of minerals can cause an external economic shock leading to a significant backlash on the domestic economy.[36]

Types of pollution

[edit]
Large can floating in the ocean near other garbage on shore
Can floating in the ocean

Marine debris pollution

[edit]
This section is an excerpt from Marine debris.[edit]

Marine debris, also known as marine litter, is human-created solid material that has deliberately or accidentally been released in seas or the ocean. Floating oceanic debris tends to accumulate at the center of gyres and on coastlines, frequently washing aground, when it is known as beach litter or tidewrack. Deliberate disposal of wastes at sea is called ocean dumping. Naturally occurring debris, such as driftwood and drift seeds, are also present. With the increasing use of plastic, human influence has become an issue as many types of (petrochemical) plastics do not biodegrade quickly, as would natural or organic materials.[37] The largest single type of plastic pollution (~10%) and majority of large plastic in the oceans is discarded and lost nets from the fishing industry.[38] Waterborne plastic poses a serious threat to fish, seabirds, marine reptiles, and marine mammals, as well as to boats and coasts.[39]

Dumping, container spillages, litter washed into storm drains and waterways and wind-blown landfill waste all contribute to this problem. This increased water pollution has caused serious negative effects such as discarded fishing nets capturing animals, concentration of plastic debris in massive marine garbage patches, and increasing concentrations of contaminants in the food chain.
Beach with small pieces of plastic scattered all over
Beach littered with garbage

Plastic pollution

[edit]
One type of marine pollution: the breakdown of a plastic bottle in the ocean into smaller fragments, eventually ending up as micro- and nano-plastics
This section is an excerpt from Marine plastic pollution.[edit]

Marine plastic pollution is a type of marine pollution by plastics, ranging in size from large original material such as bottles and bags, down to microplastics formed from the fragmentation of plastic material. Marine debris is mainly discarded human rubbish which floats on, or is suspended in the ocean. Eighty percent of marine debris is plastic.[40][41] Microplastics and nanoplastics result from the breakdown or photodegradation of plastic waste in surface waters, rivers or oceans. Recently, scientists have uncovered nanoplastics in heavy snow, more specifically about 3,000 tons that cover Switzerland yearly.[42]

It is approximated that there is a stock of 86 million tons of plastic marine debris in the worldwide ocean as of the end of 2013, assuming that 1.4% of global plastics produced from 1950 to 2013 has entered the ocean and has accumulated there.[43] Global consumption of plastics is estimated to be 300 million tonnes per year as of 2022, with around 8 million tonnes ending up in the oceans as macroplastics.[44][45] Approximately 1.5 million tonnes of primary microplastics end up in the seas. Around 98% of this volume is created by land-based activities, with the remaining 2% being generated by sea-based activities.[45][46][47] It is estimated that 19–23 million tonnes of plastic leaks into aquatic ecosystems annually.[48] The 2017 United Nations Ocean Conference estimated that the oceans might contain more weight in plastics than fish by the year 2050.[49]

Oceans are polluted by plastic particles ranging in size from large original material such as bottles and bags, down to microplastics formed from the fragmentation of plastic material. This material is only very slowly degraded or removed from the ocean so plastic particles are now widespread throughout the surface ocean and are known to be having deleterious effects on marine life.[50] Discarded plastic bags, six-pack rings, cigarette butts and other forms of plastic waste which finish up in the ocean present dangers to wildlife and fisheries.[51] Aquatic life can be threatened through entanglement, suffocation, and ingestion.[52][53][54] Fishing nets, usually made of plastic, can be left or lost in the ocean by fishermen. Known as ghost nets, these entangle fish, dolphins, sea turtles, sharks, dugongs, crocodiles, seabirds, crabs, and other creatures, restricting movement, causing starvation, laceration, infection, and, in those that need to return to the surface to breathe, suffocation.[55] There are various types of ocean plastics causing problems to marine life. Bottle caps have been found in the stomachs of turtles and seabirds, which have died because of the obstruction of their respiratory and digestive tracts.[56] Ghost nets are also a problematic type of ocean plastic as they can continuously trap marine life in a process known as "ghost fishing".[57]

  • Schmidt, Christian; Krauth, Tobias; Wagner, Stephan (11 October 2017). "Export of Plastic Debris by Rivers into the Sea" (PDF). Environmental Science & Technology. 51 (21): 12246–12253. Bibcode:2017EnST...5112246S. doi:10.1021/acs.est.7b02368. ISSN 0013-936X. PMID 29019247. The 10 top-ranked rivers transport 88–95% of the global load into the sea
  • "Supporting Information: Export of plastic debris by rivers into the sea" (PDF).[full citation needed]</ref>[58] Asia was the leading source of mismanaged plastic waste, with China alone accounting for 2.4 million metric tons.[59] The Ocean Conservancy has reported that China, Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam dump more plastic in the sea than all other countries combined.[60]

A study highlighted by the World Economic Forum warns that ocean plastic pollution could quadruple by 2050, with microplastics potentially increasing fiftyfold by 2100. The study highlighted the urgency of addressing plastic pollution, which threatens marine biodiversity and could push some species to the brink of extinction.[61]

Ocean acidification

[edit]
This section is an excerpt from Ocean acidification.[edit]

Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth's ocean. Between 1950 and 2020, the average pH of the ocean surface fell from approximately 8.15 to 8.05.[62] Carbon dioxide emissions from human activities are the primary cause of ocean acidification, with atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) levels exceeding 422 ppm (as of 2024).[63] CO2 from the atmosphere is absorbed by the oceans. This chemical reaction produces carbonic acid (H2CO3) which dissociates into a bicarbonate ion (HCO−3) and a hydrogen ion (H+). The presence of free hydrogen ions (H+) lowers the pH of the ocean, increasing acidity (this does not mean that seawater is acidic yet; it is still alkaline, with a pH higher than 8). Marine calcifying organisms, such as mollusks and corals, are especially vulnerable because they rely on calcium carbonate to build shells and skeletons.[64]

A change in pH by 0.1 represents a 26% increase in hydrogen ion concentration in the world's oceans (the pH scale is logarithmic, so a change of one in pH units is equivalent to a tenfold change in hydrogen ion concentration). Sea-surface pH and carbonate saturation states vary depending on ocean depth and location. Colder and higher latitude waters are capable of absorbing more CO2. This can cause acidity to rise, lowering the pH and carbonate saturation levels in these areas. There are several other factors that influence the atmosphere-ocean CO2 exchange, and thus local ocean acidification. These include ocean currents and upwelling zones, proximity to large continental rivers, sea ice coverage, and atmospheric exchange with nitrogen and sulfur from fossil fuel burning and agriculture.[65][66][67]

A lower ocean pH has a range of potentially harmful effects for marine organisms. Scientists have observed for example reduced calcification, lowered immune responses, and reduced energy for basic functions such as reproduction.[68] Ocean acidification can impact marine ecosystems that provide food and livelihoods for many people. About one billion people are wholly or partially dependent on the fishing, tourism, and coastal management services provided by coral reefs. Ongoing acidification of the oceans may therefore threaten food chains linked with the oceans.[69][70]
An island with a fringing reef in the Maldives. Coral reefs are dying around the world.[71]

Nutrient pollution

[edit]
Main article: Eutrophication
See also: Nutrient pollution
A polluted lagoon
The effect of eutrophication on marine benthic life

Eutrophication is an increase in chemical nutrients, typically compounds containing nitrogen or phosphorus, in an ecosystem. It can result in an increase in the ecosystem's primary productivity (excessive plant growth and decay), and further effects including lack of oxygen and severe reductions in water quality, fish, and other animal populations. Nutrient pollution, a form of water pollution, refers to contamination by excessive inputs of nutrients. It is a primary cause of eutrophication of surface waters, in which excess nutrients, usually nitrates or phosphates, stimulate algae growth. Such blooms are naturally occurring but may be increasing as a result of anthropogenic inputs or alternatively may be something that is now more closely monitored and so more frequently reported.[72]

The biggest culprit are rivers that empty into the ocean, and with it the many chemicals used as fertilizers in agriculture as well as waste from livestock and humans. An excess of oxygen-depleting chemicals in the water can lead to hypoxia and the creation of a dead zone.[7]

Estuaries tend to be naturally eutrophic because land-derived nutrients are concentrated where runoff enters the marine environment in a confined channel. The World Resources Institute has identified 375 hypoxic coastal zones around the world, concentrated in coastal areas in Western Europe, the Eastern and Southern coasts of the US, and East Asia, particularly in Japan.[73] In the ocean, there are frequent red tide algae blooms[74] that kill fish and marine mammals and cause respiratory problems in humans and some domestic animals when the blooms reach close to shore.

In addition to land runoff, atmospheric anthropogenic fixed nitrogen can enter the open ocean. A study in 2008 found that this could account for around one third of the ocean's external (non-recycled) nitrogen supply and up to three per cent of the annual new marine biological production.[75] It has been suggested that accumulating reactive nitrogen in the environment may have consequences as serious as putting carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.[76]

One proposed solution to eutrophication in estuaries is to restore shellfish populations, such as oysters. Oyster reefs remove nitrogen from the water column and filter out suspended solids, subsequently reducing the likelihood or extent of harmful algal blooms or anoxic conditions.[77] Filter feeding activity is considered beneficial to water quality[78] by controlling phytoplankton density and sequestering nutrients, which can be removed from the system through shellfish harvest, buried in the sediments, or lost through denitrification.[79][80] Foundational work toward the idea of improving marine water quality through shellfish cultivation to was conducted by Odd Lindahl et al., using mussels in Sweden.[81]

Toxicants

[edit]
See also: Mercury in fish

Apart from plastics, there are particular problems with other toxic pollutants that either do not break down or only very slowly in the marine environment. Examples of persistent toxicants are PCBs, DDT, TBT, pesticides, furans, dioxins, phenols, radioactive waste, and PFAS. Heavy metals are metallic chemical elements that have a relatively high density and are toxic or poisonous at low concentrations. Examples are mercury, lead, copper and cadmium. Some toxicants can accumulate in the tissues of many species of aquatic life in a process called bioaccumulation. They are also known to accumulate in benthic environments, such as estuaries and bay muds: a geological record of human activities of the last century.

DDT is a very toxic chemical that was used as a pesticide in mass quantities[82] throughout the United States and is known to be neurotoxic, a reproductive toxin, an endocrine disruptor, and a carcinogen.[83] DDT is a major focus of the book Silent Spring published by Rachel Carson in 1962. This is often attributed to launching the modern environmental movement[84] and setting the stage for the creation of the EPA in 1970.[85] DDT was banned in the U.S. two years later in 1972.[86] Unfortunately, large quantities had already entered the ocean through runoff and had been dumped directly into the ocean.[87] This toxin impacts marine ecosystems by accumulating from lower trophic levels[88] and up the food chain into higher trophic levels such as from arctic cod into seals,[89] from fish then eaten by dolphins,[90][91] and from cod and eels into seals.[92]

Shortly after Rachel Carson's publication of Silent Spring, PCBs were identified as another persistent, toxic chemical that has been released in extensive quantities to the environment. PCBs are a very well-studied class of chemicals that are manufactured from oil.[93] These chemicals are banned in the United States under the Toxic Substance Control Act,[94] but are still found in the soil, air, sediments, and biota.[93] PCBs are known to accumulate in the fatty tissues of animals. In particular, PCBs build up and are stored in the blubber of marine mammals including dolphins and killer whales.[95] These chemicals cause reproductive issues for many species.[95] In mud crabs, PCBs have been discovered to be immunotoxic by reducing resistance to bacterial disease, reducing antioxidant enzyme activity, and damaging DNA responsible for immune system functions.[96]

PFAS are an important emerging class of man-made persistent toxicants that contain extremely strong carbon-fluorine bonds which make these chemicals extremely difficult to break down. They have unique properties that make them useful for manufacturing a wide variety of products such as firefighting foams, clothing, carpets, and fast food wrappers.[97] These useful properties in manufacturing unfortunately translate to problematic properties in the environment and organisms from plants to people. Because PFAS are not broken down in the environment, they have been circulated through the air and water to essentially all regions of the atmosphere, land, and ocean.[98][99] These chemicals have many negative effects on marine life, such as significantly inhibited growth of phytoplankton over time[100] and accumulation in seals, polar bears,[101] and dolphins.[102] Current research is underway investigating the full extent of the harm to marine ecosystems caused by PFAS.

Specific examples
  • Chinese and Russian industrial pollution such as phenols and heavy metals in the Amur River have devastated fish stocks and damaged its estuary soil.[103]
  • Acute and chronic pollution events have been shown to impact southern California kelp forests, though the intensity of the impact seems to depend on both the nature of the contaminants and duration of exposure.[104][105][106][107][108]
  • Due to their high position in the food chain and the subsequent accumulation of heavy metals from their diet, mercury levels can be high in larger species such as bluefin and albacore. As a result, in March 2004 the United States FDA issued guidelines recommending that pregnant women, nursing mothers and children limit their intake of tuna and other types of predatory fish.[109]
  • Some shellfish and crabs can survive polluted environments, accumulating heavy metals or toxins in their tissues. For example, mitten crabs have a remarkable ability to survive in highly modified aquatic habitats, including polluted waters.[110] The farming and harvesting of such species needs careful management if they are to be used as a food.[111][112]
  • Surface runoff of pesticides can alter the gender of fish species genetically, transforming male into female fish.[113]
  • Heavy metals enter the environment through oil spills – such as the Prestige oil spill on the Galician coast and Gulf of Mexico which unleashed an estimated 3.19 million barrels of oil[114] – or from other natural or anthropogenic sources.
  • In 2005, the 'Ndrangheta, an Italian mafia syndicate, was accused of sinking at least 30 ships loaded with toxic waste, much of it radioactive. This has led to widespread investigations into radioactive waste disposal rackets.[115]
  • Since the end of World War II, various nations, including the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, the United States, and Germany, have disposed of chemical weapons in the Baltic Sea, raising concerns of environmental contamination.[116][117]
  • The Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in 2011 caused radioactive toxins from the damaged power plant to leak into the air and ocean. There are still many isotopes in the ocean, which directly affects the benthic food web and also affects the whole food chain. The concentration of 137Cs in the bottom sediment that was contaminated by water with high concentrations in April–May 2011 remains quite high and is showing signs of very slow decrease with time.[118]
  • During the 20th century, large amounts of DDT, petroleum products, radioactive materials, sulphuric acid, and other toxins were dumped in the Pacific Ocean off the coast of Southern California.

Underwater noise

[edit]
See also: Noise pollution, Acoustic ecology, The Effects of Noise on Aquatic Life, and Marine mammals and sonar

Marine life can be susceptible to noise or the sound pollution from sources such as passing ships, oil exploration seismic surveys, and naval low-frequency active sonar. Sound travels more rapidly and over larger distances in the sea than in the atmosphere. Marine animals, such as cetaceans, often have weak eyesight, and live in a world largely defined by acoustic information. This applies also to many deeper sea fish, who live in a world of darkness.[119] Between 1950 and 1975, ambient noise at one location in the Pacific Ocean increased by about ten decibels (that is a tenfold increase in intensity).[120]

Noise also makes species communicate louder, which is called the Lombard vocal response.[121] Whale songs are longer when submarine-detectors are on.[122] If creatures don't "speak" loud enough, their voice can be masked by anthropogenic sounds. These unheard voices might be warnings, finding of prey, or preparations of net-bubbling. When one species begins speaking louder, it will mask other species voices, causing the whole ecosystem to eventually speak louder.[123]

According to the oceanographer Sylvia Earle, "Undersea noise pollution is like the death of a thousand cuts. Each sound in itself may not be a matter of critical concern, but taken all together, the noise from shipping, seismic surveys, and military activity is creating a totally different environment than existed even 50 years ago. That high level of noise is bound to have a hard, sweeping impact on life in the sea."[124]

Noise from ships and human activity can damage Cnidarians and Ctenophora, which are very important organisms in the marine ecosystem. They promote high diversity and they are used as models for ecology and biology because of their simple structures. When there is underwater noise, the vibrations in the water damage the cilia hairs in the Coelenterates. In a study, the organisms were exposed to sound waves for different numbers of times and the results showed that damaged hair cells were extruded or missing or presented bent, flaccid or missed kinocilia and stereocilia.[125] Ships can be certified to meet certain noise criteria.[126]

Other

[edit]

There are a variety of secondary effects stemming not from the original pollutant, but a derivative condition. An example is silt-bearing surface runoff, which can inhibit the penetration of sunlight through the water column, hampering photosynthesis in aquatic plants.[127]

Mitigation

[edit]

Much anthropogenic pollution ends up in the ocean. The 2011 edition of the United Nations Environment Programme Year Book identifies as the main emerging environmental issues the loss to the oceans of massive amounts of phosphorus, "a valuable fertilizer needed to feed a growing global population", and the impact billions of pieces of plastic waste are having globally on the health of marine environments.[128]

Bjorn Jennssen (2003) notes in his article, "Anthropogenic pollution may reduce biodiversity and productivity of marine ecosystems, resulting in reduction and depletion of human marine food resources".[129] There are two ways the overall level of this pollution can be mitigated: either the human population is reduced, or a way is found to reduce the ecological footprint left behind by the average human. If the second way is not adopted, then the first way may be imposed as the world ecosystems falter.[citation needed]

The second way is for humans, individually, to pollute less. That requires social and political will, together with a shift in awareness so more people respect the environment and are less disposed to abuse it.[130] At an operational level, regulations, and international government participation is needed.[131] It is often very difficult to regulate marine pollution because pollution spreads over international barriers, thus making regulations hard to create as well as enforce.[132]

Without appropriate awareness of marine pollution, the necessary global will to effectively address the issues may prove inadequate. Balanced information on the sources and harmful effects of marine pollution need to become part of general public awareness, and ongoing research is required to fully establish, and keep current, the scope of the issues. As expressed in Daoji and Dag's research,[133] one of the reasons why environmental concern is lacking among the Chinese is because the public awareness is low and therefore should be targeted.[citation needed]

Marine debris removal in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (NOAA removed approximately 57 tons of derelict fishing nets and plastic litter from the Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument's tiny islands and atolls, sensitive coral reefs and shallow waters).

The amount of awareness on marine pollution is vital to the support of keeping the prevention of trash from entering waterways and ending up in our oceans. The EPA reports that in 2014 Americans generated about 258 million tons of waste, and only a third was recycled or composted. In 2015, there was over 8 million tons of plastic that made it into the ocean. The Ocean Conservancy reported that China, Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam dump more plastic in the sea than all other countries combined.[134] Through more sustainable packing this could lead to; eliminating toxic constituents, using fewer materials, making more readily available recyclable plastic. However, awareness can only take these initiatives so far. The most abundant plastic is PET (Polyethylene terephthalate) and is the most resistant to biodegradables. Researchers have been making great strides in combating this problem. In one way has been by adding a special polymer called a tetrablock copolymer. The tetrablock copolymer acts as a laminate between the PE and iPP which enables for an easier breakdown but still be tough. Through more awareness, individuals will become more cognizant of their carbon footprints. Also, from research and technology, more strides can be made to aid in the plastic pollution problem.[135][136]Jellyfish have been considered a potential mitigating organism for pollution.[137][138]

Global goals

[edit]

In 2017, the United Nations adopted a resolution establishing Sustainable Development Goals, including reduced marine pollution as a measured goal under Goal 14. The international community has agreed that reducing pollution in the oceans is a priority, which is tracked as part of Sustainable Development Goal 14 which actively seeks to undo these human impacts on the oceans.[139] The title of Target 14.1 is: "By 2025, prevent and significantly reduce marine pollution of all kinds, in particular from land-based activities, including marine debris and nutrient pollution."[139]

History

[edit]
Parties to the MARPOL 73/78 convention on marine pollution (as of April 2008)

Although marine pollution has a long history, significant international laws to counter it were not enacted until the twentieth century. Marine pollution was a concern during several United Nations Conventions on the Law of the Sea beginning in the 1950s. Most scientists believed that the oceans were so vast that they had unlimited ability to dilute, and thus render pollution harmless.[citation needed]

In the late 1950s and early 1960s, there were several controversies about dumping radioactive waste off the coasts of the United States by companies licensed by the Atomic Energy Commission, into the Irish Sea from the British reprocessing facility at Windscale, and into the Mediterranean Sea by the French Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique. After the Mediterranean Sea controversy, for example, Jacques Cousteau became a worldwide figure in the campaign to stop marine pollution. Marine pollution made further international headlines after the 1967 crash of the oil tanker Torrey Canyon, and after the 1969 Santa Barbara oil spill off the coast of California.[citation needed]

Marine pollution was a major area of discussion during the 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, held in Stockholm. That year also saw the signing of the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, sometimes called the London Convention. The London Convention did not ban marine pollution, but it established black and gray lists for substances to be banned (black) or regulated by national authorities (gray). Cyanide and high-level radioactive waste, for example, were put on the black list. The London Convention applied only to waste dumped from ships, and thus did nothing to regulate waste discharged as liquids from pipelines.[140]

Society and culture

[edit]
The Great Pacific garbage patch causes vast quantities of trash to wash ashore at the south end of Hawaii.

Laws and policies

[edit]

There are different ways for the ocean to get polluted, therefore there have been multiple laws, policies, and treaties put into place throughout history. In order to protect the ocean from marine pollution, policies have been developed internationally.

  • In 1948, Harry Truman signed a law formerly known as the Federal Water Pollution Control Act[141] that allowed the federal government to control marine pollution in United States of America.
  • In 1972, the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act of 1972 (MPRSA) was passed by the United States Congress, and regulates ocean dumping of waste in US waters.[142][143]
  • The 1954 Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil and the 1973 International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution by Ships were weakly enforced due to a lack of respect for the laws from flag states.[144]
  • In 1973 and 1978, MARPOL 73/78 was a treaty written to control vessel pollution, especially regarding oil. In 1983, the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships enforced the MARPOL 73/78 treaty internationally.[145]
  • The 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) was established to protect the marine environment by governing states to control their pollution to the ocean. It put restrictions on the amount of toxins and pollutants that come from all ships internationally.[146]
  • In 2006, the Marine Debris Research, Prevention and Reduction Ac.[147] It was established by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) to help identify, determine the source of, reduce and prevent marine debris.
  • In December 2017, the UN Environmental Agency (UNEA) established the Ad Hoc Open-Ended Expert Group on Marine Litter and Microplastics with the purpose of examining marine plastic pollutions and to evaluate ways to handle the issue.[148]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Sheppard, Charles, ed. (2019). World seas: an Environmental Evaluation. Vol. III, Ecological Issues and Environmental Impacts (Second ed.). London: Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-805204-4. OCLC 1052566532.
  2. ^ "Marine Pollution". Education | National Geographic Society. Retrieved 19 June 2023.
  3. ^ Duce, Robert; Galloway, J.; Liss, P. (2009). "The Impacts of Atmospheric Deposition to the Ocean on Marine Ecosystems and Climate WMO Bulletin Vol 58 (1)". Archived from the original on 18 December 2023. Retrieved 22 September 2020.
  4. ^ "What is the biggest source of pollution in the ocean?". National Ocean Service (US). Silver Spring, MD: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 21 September 2022.
  5. ^ Breitburg, Denise; Levin, Lisa A.; Oschlies, Andreas; Grégoire, Marilaure; Chavez, Francisco P.; Conley, Daniel J.; Garçon, Véronique; Gilbert, Denis; Gutiérrez, Dimitri; Isensee, Kirsten; Jacinto, Gil S. (5 January 2018). "Declining oxygen in the global ocean and coastal waters". Science. 359 (6371): eaam7240. Bibcode:2018Sci...359M7240B. doi:10.1126/science.aam7240. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 29301986.
  6. ^ Patin, S.A. "Anthropogenic impact in the sea and marine pollution". offshore-environment.com. Retrieved 1 February 2018.
  7. ^ a b Gerlach, S. A. (1975) Marine Pollution, Springer, Berlin
  8. ^ Jambeck, J. R.; Geyer, R.; Wilcox, C.; Siegler, T. R.; Perryman, M.; Andrady, A.; Narayan, R.; Law, K. L. (12 February 2015). "Plastic waste inputs from land into the ocean". Science. 347 (6223): 768–771. Bibcode:2015Sci...347..768J. doi:10.1126/science.1260352. PMID 25678662. S2CID 206562155.
  9. ^ Young, Emma (18 November 2003). "Copper decimates coral reef spawning". London: New Scientist.
  10. ^ "Liquid Assets 2000: Americans Pay for Dirty Water". U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Archived from the original on 15 May 2008. Retrieved 23 January 2007.
  11. ^ a b Weis, Judith S.; Butler, Carol A. (2009). "Pollution". In Weis, Judith S.; Butler, Carol A. (eds.). Salt Marshes. A Natural and Unnatural History. Rutgers University Press. pp. 117–149. ISBN 978-0-8135-4548-6. JSTOR j.ctt5hj4c2.10.
  12. ^ "Control of Toxic Chemicals in Puget Sound, Phase 2: Development of Simple Numerical Models". Washington State Department of Ecology. 2008. Archived from the original on 2 March 2017.
  13. ^ Holt, Benjamin; Trinh, Rebecca; Gierach, Michelle M. (May 2017). "Stormwater runoff plumes in the Southern California Bight: A comparison study with SAR and MODIS imagery". Marine Pollution Bulletin. 118 (1–2): 141–154. Bibcode:2017MarPB.118..141H. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.02.040. PMID 28238485.
  14. ^ a b Daoji, Li; Daler, Dag (2004). "Ocean Pollution from Land-Based Sources: East China Sea, China". Ambio. 33 (1/2): 107–113. Bibcode:2004Ambio..33..107D. doi:10.1579/0044-7447-33.1.107. JSTOR 4315461. PMID 15083656. S2CID 12289116.
  15. ^ Panetta, L.E. (Chair) (2003). America's living oceans: charting a course for sea change (PDF). Pew Oceans Commission. p. 64.
  16. ^ Van Landuyt, Josefien; Kundu, Kankana; Van Haelst, Sven; Neyts, Marijke; Parmentier, Koen; De Rijcke, Maarten; Boon, Nico (18 October 2022). "80 years later: Marine sediments still influenced by an old war ship". Frontiers in Marine Science. 9: 1017136. doi:10.3389/fmars.2022.1017136. hdl:1854/LU-01GKS4PJA2JJ06GXN0FQHFMB4D. ISSN 2296-7745.
  17. ^ "Bilge dumping: Illegal pollution you've never heard of – DW – 04/28/2022". dw.com. Retrieved 29 March 2023.
  18. ^ Farmer, Andrew (1997). Managing Environmental Pollution. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-14515-2.[page needed]
  19. ^ Schulkin, Andrew (2002). "Safe harbors: Crafting an international solution to cruise ship pollution". Georgetown International Environmental Law Review. 15 (1): 105–132.
  20. ^ Podsadam, Janice (19 June 2001). "Lost Sea Cargo: Beach Bounty or Junk?". National Geographic News. Archived from the original on 3 July 2001. Retrieved 8 April 2008.
  21. ^ a b Meinesz, A. (2003) Deep Sea Invasion: The Impact of Invasive Species PBS: NOVA. Retrieved 26 November 2009
  22. ^ Aquatic invasive species. A Guide to Least-Wanted Aquatic Organisms of the Pacific Northwest Archived 25 July 2008 at the Wayback Machine. 2001. University of Washington
  23. ^ Pimentel, David; Zuniga, Rodolfo; Morrison, Doug (February 2005). "Update on the environmental and economic costs associated with alien-invasive species in the United States". Ecological Economics. 52 (3): 273–288. Bibcode:2005EcoEc..52..273P. doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2004.10.002.
  24. ^ Coral Mortality and African Dust: Barbados Dust Record: 1965–1996 Archived 6 August 2009 at the Wayback Machine US Geological Survey. Retrieved 10 December 2009
  25. ^ "The Impacts of Atmospheric Deposition to the Ocean on Marine Ecosystems and Climate". public.wmo.int. 12 November 2015. Archived from the original on 18 December 2023. Retrieved 11 August 2022.
  26. ^ Duce, RA; Unni, CK; Ray, BJ; Prospero, JM; Merrill, JT (26 September 1980). "Long-Range Atmospheric Transport of Soil Dust from Asia to the Tropical North Pacific: Temporal Variability". Science. 209 (4464): 1522–1524. Bibcode:1980Sci...209.1522D. doi:10.1126/science.209.4464.1522. PMID 17745962. S2CID 30337924.
  27. ^ Usinfo.state.gov. Study Says African Dust Affects Climate in U.S., Caribbean. Archived 20 June 2007 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 10 June 2007
  28. ^ Prospero, J. M.; Nees, R. T. (1986). "Impact of the North African drought and El Niño on mineral dust in the Barbados trade winds". Nature. 320 (6064): 735–738. Bibcode:1986Natur.320..735P. doi:10.1038/320735a0. S2CID 33094175.
  29. ^ U. S. Geological Survey. Coral Mortality and African Dust. Archived 2 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 10 June 2007
  30. ^ Observations: Oceanic Climate Change and Sea Level Archived 13 May 2017 at the Wayback Machine In: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. (15MB)
  31. ^ Doney, S. C. (2006) "The Dangers of Ocean Acidification" Scientific American, March 2006
  32. ^ Cheung, W.W.L., et al. (2009) "Redistribution of Fish Catch by Climate Change. A Summary of a New Scientific Analysis Archived 26 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine" Pew Ocean Science Series
  33. ^ PACFA Archived 15 December 2009 at the Wayback Machine (2009) Fisheries and Aquaculture in a Changing Climate
  34. ^ Hauton, Chris; Brown, Alastair; Thatje, Sven; Mestre, Nélia C.; Bebianno, Maria J.; Martins, Inês; Bettencourt, Raul; Canals, Miquel; Sanchez-Vidal, Anna; Shillito, Bruce; Ravaux, Juliette (16 November 2017). "Identifying Toxic Impacts of Metals Potentially Released during Deep-Sea Mining—A Synthesis of the Challenges to Quantifying Risk". Frontiers in Marine Science. 4: 368. doi:10.3389/fmars.2017.00368. hdl:2445/138040. ISSN 2296-7745.
  35. ^ Lopes, Carina L.; Bastos, Luísa; Caetano, Miguel; Martins, Irene; Santos, Miguel M.; Iglesias, Isabel (10 February 2019). "Development of physical modelling tools in support of risk scenarios: A new framework focused on deep-sea mining". Science of the Total Environment. 650 (Pt 2): 2294–2306. Bibcode:2019ScTEn.650.2294L. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.09.351. ISSN 0048-9697. PMID 30292122. S2CID 52945921.
  36. ^ a b Ovesen, Vidar; Hackett, Ron; Burns, Lee; Mullins, Peter; Roger, Scott (1 September 2018). "Managing deep sea mining revenues for the public good – ensuring transparency and distribution equity". Marine Policy. 95: 332–336. Bibcode:2018MarPo..95..332O. doi:10.1016/j.marpol.2017.02.010. ISSN 0308-597X. S2CID 111380724.
  37. ^ Graham, Rachel (10 July 2019). "Euronews Living | Watch: Italy's answer to the problem with plastic". living.
  38. ^ "Dumped fishing gear is biggest plastic polluter in ocean, finds report". The Guardian. 6 November 2019. Retrieved 9 April 2021.
  39. ^ "Facts about marine debris". US NOAA. Archived from the original on 13 February 2009. Retrieved 10 April 2008.
  40. ^ Weisman, Alan (2007). The World Without Us. St. Martin's Thomas Dunne Books. ISBN 978-0312347291.
  41. ^ "Marine plastic pollution". IUCN. November 2021. Retrieved 27 May 2023.
  42. ^ "Nanoplastics in snow: The extensive impact of plastic pollution". Open Access Government. 26 January 2022. Retrieved 1 February 2022.
  43. ^ Jang, Y. C.; Lee, J.; Hong, S.; Choi, H. W.; Shim, W. J.; Hong, S. Y. (2015). "Estimating the global inflow and stock of plastic marine debris using material flow analysis: a preliminary approach". Journal of the Korean Society for Marine Environment and Energy. 18 (4): 263–273. doi:10.7846/JKOSMEE.2015.18.4.263.
  44. ^ "The average person eats thousands of plastic particles every year, study finds". Environment. 5 June 2019. Archived from the original on 17 February 2021. Retrieved 17 March 2023.
  45. ^ a b Microplastics and Micropollutants in Water: Contaminants of Emerging Concern (Report). European Investment Bank. 27 February 2023.
  46. ^ Yuan, Zhihao; Nag, Rajat; Cummins, Enda (1 June 2022). "Human health concerns regarding microplastics in the aquatic environment – From marine to food systems". Science of the Total Environment. 823: 153730. Bibcode:2022ScTEn.82353730Y. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.153730. ISSN 0048-9697. PMID 35143789. S2CID 246672629.
  47. ^ García Rellán, Adriana; Vázquez Ares, Diego; Vázquez Brea, Constantino; Francisco López, Ahinara; Bello Bugallo, Pastora M. (1 January 2023). "Sources, sinks and transformations of plastics in our oceans: Review, management strategies and modelling". Science of the Total Environment. 854: 158745. Bibcode:2023ScTEn.85458745G. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.158745. hdl:10347/29404. ISSN 0048-9697. PMID 36108857. S2CID 252251921.
  48. ^ "Drowning in Plastics – Marine Litter and Plastic Waste Vital Graphics". UNEP – UN Environment Programme. 21 October 2021. Retrieved 21 March 2022.
  49. ^ Wright, Pam (6 June 2017). "UN Ocean Conference: Plastics Dumped In Oceans Could Outweigh Fish by 2050, Secretary-General Says". The Weather Channel. Retrieved 5 May 2018.
  50. ^ Ostle, Clare; Thompson, Richard C.; Broughton, Derek; Gregory, Lance; Wootton, Marianne; Johns, David G. (2019). "The rise in ocean plastics evidenced from a 60-year time series". Nature Communications. 10 (1): 1622. Bibcode:2019NatCo..10.1622O. doi:10.1038/s41467-019-09506-1. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 6467903. PMID 30992426.
  51. ^ "Research | AMRF/ORV Alguita Research Projects". Algalita Marine Research Foundation. Archived from the original on 4 May 2009. Retrieved 19 May 2009.
  52. ^ "Marine Litter: An Analytical Overview" (PDF). United Nations Environment Programme. 2005. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 July 2008. Retrieved 1 August 2008.
  53. ^ "Six pack rings hazard to wildlife". helpwildlife.com. Archived from the original on 13 May 2008.
  54. ^ "Marine Litter: More Than A Mess". Fact Sheets. Louisiana Fisheries. Retrieved 18 April 2023.
  55. ^ "'Ghost fishing' killing seabirds". BBC News. 28 June 2007.
  56. ^ Efferth, Thomas; Paul, Norbert W. (November 2017). "Threats to human health by great ocean garbage patches". The Lancet Planetary Health. 1 (8): e301–e303. doi:10.1016/s2542-5196(17)30140-7. ISSN 2542-5196. PMID 29628159.
  57. ^ Gibbs, Susan E.; Salgado Kent, Chandra P.; Slat, Boyan; Morales, Damien; Fouda, Leila; Reisser, Julia (9 April 2019). "Cetacean sightings within the Great Pacific Garbage Patch". Marine Biodiversity. 49 (4): 2021–2027. Bibcode:2019MarBd..49.2021G. doi:10.1007/s12526-019-00952-0.
  58. ^ Harald Franzen (30 November 2017). "Almost all plastic in the ocean comes from just 10 rivers". Deutsche Welle. Retrieved 18 December 2018. It turns out that about 90 percent of all the plastic that reaches the world's oceans gets flushed through just 10 rivers: The Yangtze, the Indus, Yellow River, Hai River, the Nile, the Ganges, Pearl River, Amur River, the Niger, and the Mekong (in that order).
  59. ^ Hotz, Robert Lee (13 February 2015). "Asia Leads World in Dumping Plastic in Seas". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 23 February 2015.
  60. ^ Hannah Leung (21 April 2018). "Five Asian Countries Dump More Plastic Into Oceans Than Anyone Else Combined: How You Can Help". Forbes. Retrieved 23 June 2019. China, Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam are dumping more plastic into oceans than the rest of the world combined, according to a 2017 report by Ocean Conservancy
  61. ^ "Ocean plastic pollution threatens marine extinction says new study".
  62. ^ Terhaar, Jens; Frölicher, Thomas L.; Joos, Fortunat (2023). "Ocean acidification in emission-driven temperature stabilization scenarios: the role of TCRE and non-CO2 greenhouse gases". Environmental Research Letters. 18 (2): 024033. Bibcode:2023ERL....18b4033T. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/acaf91. ISSN 1748-9326. S2CID 255431338. Figure 1f
  63. ^ Oxygen, Pro (21 September 2024). "Earth's CO2 Home Page". Retrieved 21 September 2024.
  64. ^ Ocean acidification due to increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide (PDF). Royal Society. 2005. ISBN 0-85403-617-2.
  65. ^ Jiang, Li-Qing; Carter, Brendan R.; Feely, Richard A.; Lauvset, Siv K.; Olsen, Are (2019). "Surface ocean pH and buffer capacity: past, present and future". Scientific Reports. 9 (1): 18624. Bibcode:2019NatSR...918624J. doi:10.1038/s41598-019-55039-4. PMC 6901524. PMID 31819102. Text was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Archived 16 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine
  66. ^ Zhang, Y.; Yamamoto-Kawai, M.; Williams, W.J. (16 February 2020). "Two Decades of Ocean Acidification in the Surface Waters of the Beaufort Gyre, Arctic Ocean: Effects of Sea Ice Melt and Retreat From 1997–2016". Geophysical Research Letters. 47 (3). doi:10.1029/2019GL086421. S2CID 214271838.
  67. ^ Beaupré-Laperrière, Alexis; Mucci, Alfonso; Thomas, Helmuth (31 July 2020). "The recent state and variability of the carbonate system of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago and adjacent basins in the context of ocean acidification". Biogeosciences. 17 (14): 3923–3942. Bibcode:2020BGeo...17.3923B. doi:10.5194/bg-17-3923-2020. S2CID 221369828.
  68. ^ Anthony, K. R. N.; Kline, D. I.; Diaz-Pulido, G.; Dove, S.; Hoegh-Guldberg, O. (11 November 2008). "Ocean acidification causes bleaching and productivity loss in coral reef builders". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 105 (45): 17442–17446. Bibcode:2008PNAS..10517442A. doi:10.1073/pnas.0804478105. PMC 2580748. PMID 18988740.
  69. ^ Dean, Cornelia (30 January 2009). "Rising Acidity Is Threatening Food Web of Oceans, Science Panel Says". New York Times.
  70. ^ Service, Robert E. (13 July 2012). "Rising Acidity Brings an Ocean of Trouble". Science. 337 (6091): 146–148. Bibcode:2012Sci...337..146S. doi:10.1126/science.337.6091.146. PMID 22798578.
  71. ^ Coral reefs around the world The Guardian, 2 September 2009
  72. ^ Hallegraeff, Gustaaf M.; Anderson, Donald M.; Belin, Catherine; Bottein, Marie-Yasmine Dechraoui; Bresnan, Eileen; Chinain, Mireille; Enevoldsen, Henrik; Iwataki, Mitsunori; Karlson, Bengt; McKenzie, Cynthia H.; Sunesen, Inés (2021). "Perceived global increase in algal blooms is attributable to intensified monitoring and emerging bloom impacts". Communications Earth & Environment. 2 (1): 117. Bibcode:2021ComEE...2..117H. doi:10.1038/s43247-021-00178-8. ISSN 2662-4435. PMC 10289804. PMID 37359131. S2CID 235364600.
  73. ^ Selman, Mindy (2007) Eutrophication: An Overview of Status, Trends, Policies, and Strategies. World Resources Institute
  74. ^ "The Gulf of Mexico Dead Zone and Red Tides". Retrieved 27 December 2006.
  75. ^ Duce, R. A.; LaRoche, J.; Altieri, K.; Arrigo, K. R.; Baker, A. R.; Capone, D. G.; Cornell, S.; Dentener, F.; Galloway, J.; Ganeshram, R. S.; Geider, R. J.; Jickells, T.; Kuypers, M. M.; Langlois, R.; Liss, P. S.; Liu, S. M.; Middelburg, J. J.; Moore, C. M.; Nickovic, S.; Oschlies, A.; Pedersen, T.; Prospero, J.; Schlitzer, R.; Seitzinger, S.; Sorensen, L. L.; Uematsu, M.; Ulloa, O.; Voss, M.; Ward, B.; Zamora, L. (16 May 2008). "Impacts of Atmospheric Anthropogenic Nitrogen on the Open Ocean". Science. 320 (5878): 893–897. Bibcode:2008Sci...320..893D. doi:10.1126/science.1150369. hdl:21.11116/0000-0001-CD7A-0. PMID 18487184. S2CID 11204131.
  76. ^ Addressing the nitrogen cascade Eureka Alert, 2008
  77. ^ Kroeger, Timm (May 2012). "Dollars and Sense: Economic Benefits and Impacts from two Oyster Reef Restoration Projects in the Northern Gulf of Mexico". The Nature Conservancy.
  78. ^ Burkholder, JoAnn M. and Shumway, Sandra E. (2011). "Bivalve shellfish aquaculture and eutrophication". In: Shellfish Aquaculture and the Environment. Ed. Sandra E. Shumway. John Wiley & Sons
  79. ^ Kaspar, H. F.; Gillespie, P. A.; Boyer, I. C.; MacKenzie, A. L. (1985). "Effects of mussel aquaculture on the nitrogen cycle and benthic communities in Kenepuru Sound, Marlborough Sounds, New Zealand". Marine Biology. 85 (2): 127–136. Bibcode:1985MarBi..85..127K. doi:10.1007/BF00397431. S2CID 83551118.
  80. ^ Newell, Roger I. E.; Cornwell, Jeffrey C.; Owens, Michael S. (September 2002). "Influence of simulated bivalve biodeposition and microphytobenthos on sediment nitrogen dynamics: A laboratory study". Limnology and Oceanography. 47 (5): 1367–1379. Bibcode:2002LimOc..47.1367N. doi:10.4319/lo.2002.47.5.1367. S2CID 6589732.
  81. ^ Lindahl, Odd; Hart, Rob; Hernroth, Bodil; Kollberg, Sven; Loo, Lars-Ove; Olrog, Lars; Rehnstam-Holm, Ann-Sofi; Svensson, Jonny; Svensson, Susanne; Syversen, Ulf (March 2005). "Improving Marine Water Quality by Mussel Farming: A Profitable Solution for Swedish Society". Ambio: A Journal of the Human Environment. 34 (2): 131–138. Bibcode:2005Ambio..34..131L. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.589.3995. doi:10.1579/0044-7447-34.2.131. PMID 15865310. S2CID 25371433.
  82. ^ "DDT Regulatory History: A Brief Survey (to 1975)". United States Environmental Protection Agency. July 1975. Retrieved 10 November 2023.
  83. ^ Harada, Takanori; Takeda, Makio; Kojima, Sayuri; Tomiyama, Naruto (31 January 2016). "Toxicity and Carcinogenicity of Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT)". Toxicological Research. 32 (1): 21–33. doi:10.5487/TR.2016.32.1.021. ISSN 1976-8257. PMC 4780236. PMID 26977256.
  84. ^ "Legacy of Rachel Carsons Silent Spring National Historic Chemical Landmark". American Chemical Society. Retrieved 10 November 2023.
  85. ^ "How Rachel Carson's 'Silent Spring' Awakened the World to Environmental Peril". HISTORY. 22 April 2022. Retrieved 10 November 2023.
  86. ^ "Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) Factsheet | National Biomonitoring Program | CDC". www.cdc.gov. 2 September 2021. Retrieved 10 November 2023.
  87. ^ "Chemical Dumpsite Offshore Southern California". scripps.ucsd.edu. 26 September 2022. Retrieved 10 November 2023.
  88. ^ Wang, Xinhong; Wang, Wen-Xiong (1 August 2005). "Uptake, absorption efficiency and elimination of DDT in marine phytoplankton, copepods and fish". Environmental Pollution. 136 (3): 453–464. Bibcode:2005EPoll.136..453W. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2005.01.004. ISSN 0269-7491. PMID 15862399.
  89. ^ Muir, Derek C. G.; Norstrom, Ross J.; Simon, Mary. (September 1988). "Organochlorine contaminants in arctic marine food chains: accumulation of specific polychlorinated biphenyls and chlordane-related compounds". Environmental Science & Technology. 22 (9): 1071–1079. Bibcode:1988EnST...22.1071M. doi:10.1021/es00174a012. ISSN 0013-936X. PMID 22148662.
  90. ^ Tanabe, Shinsuke; Tatsukawa, Ryo; Tanaka, Hiroyuki; Maruyama, Kohji; Miyazaki, Nobuyuki; Fujiyama, Toraya (1 November 1981). "Distribution and Total Burdens of Chlorinated Hydrocarbons in Bodies of Striped Dolphins (Stenella coeruleoalba)". Agricultural and Biological Chemistry. 45 (11): 2569–2578. doi:10.1271/bbb1961.45.2569.
  91. ^ Tanabe, Shinsuke; Tanaka, Hiroyuki; Tatsukawa, Ryo (1 November 1984). "Polychlorobiphenyls, ΣDDT, and hexachlorocyclohexane isomers in the western North Pacific ecosystem". Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. 13 (6): 731–738. Bibcode:1984ArECT..13..731T. doi:10.1007/BF01055937. ISSN 1432-0703. S2CID 85012745.
  92. ^ Ruus, A; Ugland, K. I; Espeland, O; Skaare, J. U (1 August 1999). "Organochlorine contaminants in a local marine food chain from Jarfjord, Northern Norway". Marine Environmental Research. 48 (2): 131–146. Bibcode:1999MarER..48..131R. doi:10.1016/S0141-1136(99)00037-9. ISSN 0141-1136.
  93. ^ a b Montano, Luigi; Pironti, Concetta; Pinto, Gabriella; Ricciardi, Maria; Buono, Amalia; Brogna, Carlo; Venier, Marta; Piscopo, Marina; Amoresano, Angela; Motta, Oriana (1 July 2022). "Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) in the Environment: Occupational and Exposure Events, Effects on Human Health and Fertility". Toxics. 10 (7): 365. doi:10.3390/toxics10070365. ISSN 2305-6304. PMC 9323099. PMID 35878270.
  94. ^ "Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) and Federal Facilities". United States Environmental Protection Agency. 8 August 2023. Retrieved 10 November 2023.
  95. ^ a b Jepson, Paul D.; Deaville, Rob; Barber, Jonathan L.; Aguilar, Àlex; Borrell, Asunción; Murphy, Sinéad; Barry, Jon; Brownlow, Andrew; Barnett, James; Berrow, Simon; Cunningham, Andrew A.; Davison, Nicholas J.; ten Doeschate, Mariel; Esteban, Ruth; Ferreira, Marisa (14 January 2016). "PCB pollution continues to impact populations of orcas and other dolphins in European waters". Scientific Reports. 6 (1): 18573. Bibcode:2016NatSR...618573J. doi:10.1038/srep18573. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 4725908. PMID 26766430.
  96. ^ Xiao, Chongyang; Zhang, Yunfei; Zhu, Fei (15 December 2021). "Immunotoxicity of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) to the marine crustacean species, Scylla paramamosain". Environmental Pollution. 291: 118229. Bibcode:2021EPoll.29118229X. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2021.118229. ISSN 0269-7491. PMID 34582922. S2CID 238218223.
  97. ^ Mahmoudnia, Ali (18 January 2023). "The role of PFAS in unsettling ocean carbon sequestration". Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 195 (2): 310. Bibcode:2023EMnAs.195..310M. doi:10.1007/s10661-023-10912-8. ISSN 1573-2959. PMC 9848026. PMID 36652110.
  98. ^ Panieri, Emiliano; Baralic, Katarina; Djukic-Cosic, Danijela; Buha Djordjevic, Aleksandra; Saso, Luciano (February 2022). "PFAS Molecules: A Major Concern for the Human Health and the Environment". Toxics. 10 (2): 44. doi:10.3390/toxics10020044. ISSN 2305-6304. PMC 8878656. PMID 35202231.
  99. ^ Muir, Derek; Miaz, Luc T. (20 July 2021). "Spatial and Temporal Trends of Perfluoroalkyl Substances in Global Ocean and Coastal Waters". Environmental Science & Technology. 55 (14): 9527–9537. Bibcode:2021EnST...55.9527M. doi:10.1021/acs.est.0c08035. ISSN 0013-936X. PMID 33646763. S2CID 232090620.
  100. ^ Niu, Zhiguang; Na, Jing; Xu, Wei'an; Wu, Nan; Zhang, Ying (1 September 2019). "The effect of environmentally relevant emerging per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances on the growth and antioxidant response in marine Chlorella sp". Environmental Pollution. 252 (Pt A): 103–109. Bibcode:2019EPoll.252..103N. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2019.05.103. ISSN 0269-7491. PMID 31146223. S2CID 171092231.
  101. ^ Boisvert, Gabriel; Sonne, Christian; Rigét, Frank F.; Dietz, Rune; Letcher, Robert J. (1 September 2019). "Bioaccumulation and biomagnification of perfluoroalkyl acids and precursors in East Greenland polar bears and their ringed seal prey". Environmental Pollution. 252 (Pt B): 1335–1343. Bibcode:2019EPoll.252.1335B. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2019.06.035. ISSN 0269-7491. PMID 31252131. S2CID 195764669.
  102. ^ Stockin, K. A.; Yi, S.; Northcott, G. L.; Betty, E. L.; Machovsky-Capuska, G. E.; Jones, B.; Perrott, M. R.; Law, R. J.; Rumsby, A.; Thelen, M. A.; Graham, L.; Palmer, E. I.; Tremblay, L. A. (1 December 2021). "Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), trace elements and life history parameters of mass-stranded common dolphins (Delphinus delphis) in New Zealand". Marine Pollution Bulletin. 173 (Pt A): 112896. Bibcode:2021MarPB.17312896S. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2021.112896. hdl:2292/58033. ISSN 0025-326X. PMID 34601248. S2CID 238258920.
  103. ^ "Indigenous Peoples of the Russian North, Siberia and Far East: Nivkh" by Arctic Network for the Support of the Indigenous Peoples of the Russian Arctic
  104. ^ Grigg, R.W.; Kiwala, R.S. (1970). "Some ecological effects of discharged wastes on marine life". California Department of Fish and Game. 56: 145–155.
  105. ^ Stull, J. K. (1989). "Contaminants in Sediments Near a Major Marine Outfall: History, Effects, and Future". Proceedings OCEANS. Vol. 2. pp. 481–484. doi:10.1109/OCEANS.1989.586780. S2CID 111153399.
  106. ^ North, W. J.; James, D. E.; Jones, L. G. (1993). "History of kelp beds (Macrocystis) in Orange and San Diego Counties, California". Fourteenth International Seaweed Symposium. p. 277. doi:10.1007/978-94-011-1998-6_33. ISBN 978-94-010-4882-8.
  107. ^ Tegner, M. J.; Dayton, P. K.; Edwards, P. B.; Riser, K. L.; Chadwick, D. B.; Dean, T. A.; Deysher, L. (1995). "Effects of a large sewage spill on a kelp forest community: Catastrophe or disturbance?". Marine Environmental Research. 40 (2): 181–224. Bibcode:1995MarER..40..181T. doi:10.1016/0141-1136(94)00008-D.
  108. ^ Carpenter, S. R.; Caraco, N. F.; Correll, D. L.; Howarth, R. W.; Sharpley, A. N.; Smith, V. H. (August 1998). "Nonpoint Pollution of Surface Waters with Phosphorus and Nitrogen". Ecological Applications. 8 (3): 559–568. doi:10.1890/1051-0761(1998)008[0559:NPOSWW]2.0.CO;2. hdl:1808/16724.
  109. ^ "Advice about Eating Fish For Women Who Are or Might Become Pregnant, Breastfeeding Mothers, and Young Children". FDA. 24 February 2020.
  110. ^ Gollasch, Stephen (3 March 2006). "Ecology of Eriocheir sinensis".
  111. ^ Hui, Clifford A.; Rudnick, Deborah; Williams, Erin (February 2005). "Mercury burdens in Chinese mitten crabs (Eriocheir sinensis) in three tributaries of southern San Francisco Bay, California, USA". Environmental Pollution. 133 (3): 481–487. Bibcode:2005EPoll.133..481H. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2004.06.019. PMID 15519723.
  112. ^ Silvestre, F; Trausch, G; Péqueux, A; Devos, P (January 2004). "Uptake of cadmium through isolated perfused gills of the Chinese mitten crab, Eriocheir sinensis". Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology. 137 (1): 189–196. doi:10.1016/s1095-6433(03)00290-3. PMID 14720604.
  113. ^ Saey, Tina Hesman (12 August 2002). "DDT treatment turns male fish into mothers". Science News.
  114. ^ "Gulf Oil Spill". Smithsonian Ocean. 30 April 2018.
  115. ^ Bocca, Riccardo (5 August 2005) Parla un boss: Così lo Stato pagava la 'ndrangheta per smaltire i rifiuti tossici. L'Espresso
  116. ^ "Chemical Weapon Time Bomb Ticks in the Baltic Sea". DW. 1 February 2008.
  117. ^ "Activities 2007 Overview" (PDF). Baltic Sea Environment Proceedings No. 112. Helsinki Commission.
  118. ^ Bezhenar, Roman; Jung, Kyung Tae; Maderich, Vladimir; Willemsen, Stefan; de With, Govert; Qiao, Fangli (23 May 2016). "Transfer of radiocaesium from contaminated bottom sediments to marine organisms through benthic food chains in post-Fukushima and post-Chernobyl periods". Biogeosciences. 13 (10): 3021–3034. Bibcode:2016BGeo...13.3021B. doi:10.5194/bg-13-3021-2016.
  119. ^ Noise pollution Archived 7 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine Sea.org. Retrieved 24 October 2009
  120. ^ Ross, (1993) On Ocean Underwater Ambient Noise. Institute of Acoustics Bulletin, St Albans, Herts, UK: Institute of Acoustics, 18
  121. ^ Glossary Archived 29 June 2017 at the Wayback Machine Discovery of Sounds in the Sea. Retrieved 23 December 2009
  122. ^ Fristrup, K. M.; Hatch, L. T.; Clark, C. W. (2003). "Variation in humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) song length in relation to low-frequency sound broadcasts". The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 113 (6): 3411–3424. Bibcode:2003ASAJ..113.3411F. doi:10.1121/1.1573637. PMID 12822811.
  123. ^ Effects of Sound on Marine Animals Archived 13 January 2010 at the Wayback Machine Discovery of Sounds in the Sea. Retrieved 23 December 2009
  124. ^ Natural Resources Defense Council Press Release (1999) Sounding the Depths: Supertankers, Sonar, and the Rise of Undersea Noise, Executive Summary. New York, N.Y.: www.nrdc.org
  125. ^ Solé, Marta; Lenoir, Marc; Fontuño, José Manuel; Durfort, Mercè; van der Schaar, Mike; André, Michel (21 December 2016). "Evidence of Cnidarians sensitivity to sound after exposure to low frequency noise underwater sources". Scientific Reports. 6 (1): 37979. Bibcode:2016NatSR...637979S. doi:10.1038/srep37979. PMC 5175278. PMID 28000727.
  126. ^ "HSHI Delivers World's First Product Carrier With 'SILENT-E' Underwater Noise Notation". www.marineinsight.com. 19 April 2021.
  127. ^ Queensland Government (13 February 2019). "How does sediment affect the Great Barrier Reef?". Reef 2050 Water Quality Improvement Plan. Retrieved 4 August 2021.
  128. ^ Fertilizer and plastic pollution are the main emerging issues in 2011 UNEP Year Book Archived 15 June 2015 at the Library of Congress Web Archives, 17 February 2011. News Centre, United Nations Environment Programme, The Hague
  129. ^ Jenssen, Bjørn Munro (April 2003). "Marine pollution: the future challenge is to link human and wildlife studies". Environmental Health Perspectives. 111 (4): A198-9. doi:10.1289/ehp.111-a198. PMC 1241462. PMID 12676633.
  130. ^ Kullenberg, G. (December 1999). "Approaches to addressing the problems of pollution of the marine environment: an overview". Ocean & Coastal Management. 42 (12): 999–1018. Bibcode:1999OCM....42..999K. doi:10.1016/S0964-5691(99)00059-9.
  131. ^ Matthews, Gwenda (January 1973). "Pollution of the oceans: An international problem?". Ocean Management. 1: 161–170. Bibcode:1973OcMan...1..161M. doi:10.1016/0302-184X(73)90010-3.
  132. ^ Warner, Robin (2009). Protecting the Oceans Beyond National Jurisdiction: Strengthening the International Law Framework. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-17262-3.[page needed]
  133. ^ Daoji, Li; Daler, Dag (February 2004). "Ocean Pollution from Land-based Sources: East China Sea, China". Ambio: A Journal of the Human Environment. 33 (1): 107–113. Bibcode:2004Ambio..33..107D. doi:10.1579/0044-7447-33.1.107. JSTOR 4315461. S2CID 12289116.
  134. ^ Leung, Hannah (21 April 2018). "Five Asian Countries Dump More Plastic Into Oceans Than Anyone Else Combined: How You Can Help". Forbes. China, Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam are dumping more plastic into oceans than the rest of the world combined, according to a 2017 report by Ocean Conservancy
  135. ^ Austin, Harry P.; Allen, Mark D.; Donohoe, Bryon S.; Rorrer, Nicholas A.; Kearns, Fiona L.; Silveira, Rodrigo L.; Pollard, Benjamin C.; Dominick, Graham; Duman, Ramona; El Omari, Kamel; Mykhaylyk, Vitaliy; Wagner, Armin; Michener, William E.; Amore, Antonella; Skaf, Munir S.; Crowley, Michael F.; Thorne, Alan W.; Johnson, Christopher W.; Woodcock, H. Lee; McGeehan, John E.; Beckham, Gregg T. (8 May 2018). "Characterization and engineering of a plastic-degrading aromatic polyesterase". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 115 (19): E4350–E4357. Bibcode:2018PNAS..115E4350A. doi:10.1073/pnas.1718804115. PMC 5948967. PMID 29666242.
  136. ^ "Trash Free Waters". EPA. 15 September 2022.
  137. ^ Fourneris, Cyril (20 January 2020). "Could jellyfish be the answer to fighting ocean pollution?". euronews.
  138. ^ "GoJelly; a gelatinous solution to plastic pollution". Odense, Denmark: SDU University of Southern Denmark. Retrieved 21 September 2022.
  139. ^ a b United Nations (2017) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017, Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (A/RES/71/313)
  140. ^ Hamblin, Jacob Darwin (2008). Poison in the Well: Radioactive Waste in the Oceans at the Dawn of the Nuclear Age. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 978-0-8135-4220-1.
  141. ^ Davies, J. Clarence; Mazurek, Jan (2014). Pollution Control in United States: Evaluating the System. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-89166-4.[page needed]
  142. ^ "Learn About Ocean Dumping". EPA. 8 June 2022.
  143. ^ Lang, Gregory E. (1990). "Plastics, the Marine Menace: Causes and Cures". Journal of Land Use & Environmental Law. 5 (2): 729–752. JSTOR 42842563.
  144. ^ Rand, Gary M.; Carriger, John F. (1 January 2001). "U.S. environmental law statutes in coastal zone protection". Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. 20 (1): 115–121. doi:10.1002/etc.5620200111. ISSN 0730-7268. PMID 11351397. S2CID 40130385.
  145. ^ Griffin, Andrew (1994). "MARPOL 73/78 and Vessel Pollution: A Glass Half Full or Half Empty?". Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies. 1 (2): 489–513. JSTOR 20644564.
  146. ^ Darmody, Stephen J. (1995). "The Law of the Sea: A Delicate Balance for Environmental Lawyers". Natural Resources & Environment. 9 (4): 24–27. JSTOR 40923485.
  147. ^ (U.S.), Marine Debris Program (c. 2007). Boating and marine debris: boater's guide to marine debris and conservation. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. OCLC 700946101.
  148. ^ Maljean-Dubois, Sandrine; Mayer, Benoît (2020). "Liability and Compensation for Marine Plastic Pollution: Conceptual Issues and Possible Ways Forward". AJIL Unbound. 114: 206–211. doi:10.1017/aju.2020.40. ISSN 2398-7723. S2CID 225630731.

Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marine_pollution&oldid=1238585316"